Personality characteristics
Crutchfield: Conformers= low self esteem and less intelligent.
Locus of control
- sense of control over successes, failures and events in people's lives.
- Those with strong LOC believe they can influence events in their lives.
- External LOC believe outside factors (luck/fate) influence what happens in lives.
Williams and Warchal (1981)
- 30 university students given conformity tasks based on Asch.
- Assesses for LOC.
Result: those conformed were less assertive but didn't score differently on LOC scale.
Developing independent behaviour
Nemeth and Chiles (1988)
Aim: To see if p's influenced to be independent using similar method to Moscovici.
Procedure: 48 male volunteers.
- First part: groups of 5 (one C) judge slide colours using consistent and unconsistent C's.
- Second part: Colour perception task using red slides. (4/5 confederates called them orange.)
Results: Those who exposed to minority in first part more likely to be independent in second.
Wednesday, 28 December 2011
Obedience to authority
"OBEDIENCE IS THE RESULT OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE WHEN SOMEONE ACTS IN RESPONSE TO A DIRECT ORDER FROM AN AUTHORITY FIGURE"
Milgram (1963)
Aim: find if Americans obey to unjust order from authority figure to inflict pain.
Procedure: 48 male volunteers.
- P's = teacher
- C's = learner
- Learner receive shocks by teacher when fail on work pair task. (fake)
Result: All p's went to 300V
65% went to end (450V)
Conclusion: most people obey when against conscience.
When people occupy subordinate position in a dominance hierachy they lose feelings of empathy and morality.
+/-: p's found it impossible to withdraw.
- Sent questionnaire to p's and 84% were glad to have taken part. He visited them a year later and found no psycho harm.
Orne and Holland (1968)
- Lacked ecological validity. P'S didn't believe shocks were real and they should have questioned why experimenter didn't give shocks.
Aronson+Carlsmith (1988)
- Distinguished two types of realism.
Milgram (1963)
Aim: find if Americans obey to unjust order from authority figure to inflict pain.
Procedure: 48 male volunteers.
- P's = teacher
- C's = learner
- Learner receive shocks by teacher when fail on work pair task. (fake)
Result: All p's went to 300V
65% went to end (450V)
Conclusion: most people obey when against conscience.
When people occupy subordinate position in a dominance hierachy they lose feelings of empathy and morality.
+/-: p's found it impossible to withdraw.
- Sent questionnaire to p's and 84% were glad to have taken part. He visited them a year later and found no psycho harm.
Orne and Holland (1968)
- Lacked ecological validity. P'S didn't believe shocks were real and they should have questioned why experimenter didn't give shocks.
Aronson+Carlsmith (1988)
- Distinguished two types of realism.
- experimental (internal validity): p's fooled into believing exp was real.
- Mundane realism (external validity): real life set up exp.
Factors affecting obediance
- Setting of experiment:
- Milgram setting prestigious yale uni. To test this he moved his exp to a seedy office. Obedience dropped. 48% continued to 450V. - Reducing power of experimenter
- Milgram told exp to give orders over phone, 26% teachers went to 450V.
- Reduced exp power by working in pairs. 96% resisted orders and 10% went to 450v. - Increasing awareness of plight of victim
- Obedience easier if victim remote. Milgram put teacher and learner in same room. Obedience dropped. When teacher had to physically put hand of learner on plate 30% went to 450v.
Obedience in the field
- people unaware taking part reducing D C's.
Hofling (1966)
- Nurse receive orders via phone from unknows doctor to administer twice dose of a drug to a patient. This broke 3 rules.
Result: 21/22 obeyed.
- When interviewed, nurses said they had been asked to do this before and doctors became annoyed at refusal.
Conclusion: Results highlight pressure to obey.
- High levels of obedience can be obtained in a real life setting.
- Nurse receive orders via phone from unknows doctor to administer twice dose of a drug to a patient. This broke 3 rules.
Result: 21/22 obeyed.
- When interviewed, nurses said they had been asked to do this before and doctors became annoyed at refusal.
Conclusion: Results highlight pressure to obey.
- High levels of obedience can be obtained in a real life setting.
The power of uniform
Bushman (1988)
- Female confederate dressed in uniform or smart.
- C ordered passer by for change for a parking meter.
Result: 70% complied to uniform
58% complied to smart.
- C ordered passer by for change for a parking meter.
Result: 70% complied to uniform
58% complied to smart.
Jackson (1990)
Aim: effects of strength and immediacy on obedience to a simple request at zoo.
Procedure: 153 adults, 55 kids.
- Approached by experimenter in zoo keeper uniform or normal visitor.
- Asked not to lean on rail. Behaviour observed.
Procedure: 153 adults, 55 kids.
- Approached by experimenter in zoo keeper uniform or normal visitor.
- Asked not to lean on rail. Behaviour observed.
Result: High strength (uniform) produced more compliance than low (normal).
Conclusion: Uniform indicates authority.
Conclusion: Uniform indicates authority.
The obedience alibi- David Mandel (1998)
- Research provides alibi for those charged with war crimes as it implies an ordinary person can commit terrible acts under social pressure.
- Adolf Eichmann= crimes against humanity in Nazi Germany. He insisted throughout trials he was just obeying orders.
- Adolf Eichmann= crimes against humanity in Nazi Germany. He insisted throughout trials he was just obeying orders.
Why do people obey?
Situational factors
- Legitimate authority:
- Amount of social power held by person. We obey people with L.A. because we trust them or they have power to punish us.
- In Milgram's study we could assume the setting influenced trust they felt in experimenter. - The authority figure takes responsibility: In Milgram's study p's continued when told they weren't responsible.
Milgram explained importance of responsibility through 'agency theory': In social situation people operate...
- when they act as autonomous individuals they are aware of consequences and choose voluntarily to behave in particular ways.
- An agentic state. They don't feel personally responsible.
- Change from autonomous to agentic is known as the agentic shift. - Graduated commitment:Milgram's study p's were gradually committed by 15V-450V.
P's wouldn't have obeyed if asked to start at 300V.
Milgram established a basis for obedience which made it difficult for p's to disobey.
-' the foot in the door technique'.
Personality factors into obedience
The authoritarian personality.
Adorno
Aim: Test if people with an authoritarian personality are obedient.
Procedure: studied 2000 american students from white middle class b.grounds.
Interviewed them about political views and early childhood experiences.
Used projective tests to assess if they were racially prejudiced.
Result: Found p's who were brough up by strict parents grew up to be obedient.
Harsh punishment led to child feeling hostile towards parents. These feelings repressed and displaced onto others, often ratial group.
- He developed the 'f' scale to measure the authoritarian personality. e.g.
Aim: Test if people with an authoritarian personality are obedient.
Procedure: studied 2000 american students from white middle class b.grounds.
Interviewed them about political views and early childhood experiences.
Used projective tests to assess if they were racially prejudiced.
Result: Found p's who were brough up by strict parents grew up to be obedient.
Harsh punishment led to child feeling hostile towards parents. These feelings repressed and displaced onto others, often ratial group.
- He developed the 'f' scale to measure the authoritarian personality. e.g.
- Conventionalism: obedience and respect for authority.
- Authoritarian aggression: Sex crimes e.g. rape deserve more than prison.
- Power and toughness: People divided into two classes; the strong and the weak.
Explanation of independent behaviour
Non conformity
- person acts in opposition to group norm.
The role of situational factors in disobedience and non conformity
Gamson (1982)
Aim: to see if p's would rebel against unjust authority when encouraged.
Procedure: Advert in papers in USA, paid to take part in 'discussion on standards of behaviour in community.'
- Put in groups of 9.
- P's met a consultant who said they were taking legal action against a petrol station manager due to a offensive lifestyle.
- the manager argued he was sacked for speaking publicly of high petrol prices.
- Consultant wanted them to argue in favour.
- It was filmed and shown in court.
Result: 32/33 groups rebelled in some way.
- 25/33 groups refused to sign consent form.
Conclusion: rebellion in this case involved challenging social norms in the situations; obedience and commitment.
+/-: Why did people disobey...
Smith and Mackie (2000)
- person acts in opposition to group norm.
The role of situational factors in disobedience and non conformity
Gamson (1982)
Aim: to see if p's would rebel against unjust authority when encouraged.
Procedure: Advert in papers in USA, paid to take part in 'discussion on standards of behaviour in community.'
- Put in groups of 9.
- P's met a consultant who said they were taking legal action against a petrol station manager due to a offensive lifestyle.
- the manager argued he was sacked for speaking publicly of high petrol prices.
- Consultant wanted them to argue in favour.
- It was filmed and shown in court.
Result: 32/33 groups rebelled in some way.
- 25/33 groups refused to sign consent form.
Conclusion: rebellion in this case involved challenging social norms in the situations; obedience and commitment.
+/-: Why did people disobey...
Smith and Mackie (2000)
- Importance of group:
- p's established strong group identitiy which they agreed demands of authority was unreasonable. - Reactance:
- p's rebelled against attempts to control behaviour. - Systematic processing:
- p's had sufficient time to think about their actions.
Why people conform
Dual dependency model- Deutsch and Gerard (1955)
- Normative social influence:
Need to be accepted and belong to a group.
Group belonging is rewarding and group has power to punish/exclude those who don't fit in.
Privately disagree with group (compliance) - Informational social influence:
Different needs drive this type of social influence.
When one is unsure they conform.
Drive for conformity is need to be right.
+/-:
- Doesn't acknowledge importance of belonging to a group.
-P's in an experiment cannot fear group exclusion so it implies factors other than dependency of group may be important.
- Sees choice to conform as a rational process in which the person weighs up information given and need for group approval.
Social identity explanations- Hogg (2003)
- Referent informational influence
- which considers importance of relationships and emotional ties with other group members to help understand why we conform with them.
Tajfel (1971)
Aim: to investigate importance of group belonging.
procedure: Teenage boys in Bristol allocated to one of two groups on basis of preference for an artist.
Played game where they allocate points to exchange for money to both groups.
Aim: to investigate importance of group belonging.
procedure: Teenage boys in Bristol allocated to one of two groups on basis of preference for an artist.
Played game where they allocate points to exchange for money to both groups.
Result: Boys consistently allocated points to own group even with more points allocated by giving both groups equal amounts.
Conclusion: We favour 'in' group and discriminate 'out' group.
Conclusion: We favour 'in' group and discriminate 'out' group.
- We self categorize ourself to feel part of a group.
- Group norms regulate behaviour which is internalized.
- Conforming to gain approval and fears rejection.
EXPLAINING MINORITY INFLUENCE
Moscovi: Showed minorities exert influence when they are consistent.
Clark argued minority can exert influence by
- Providing persuasive arguments
- Showing defecting behaviour.
Clark argued minority can exert influence by
- Providing persuasive arguments
- Showing defecting behaviour.
2 Explanations of minority influence
Lantane and Wolfe (1981) social impact theory
- Minority and majority influence involve people that they divide into sources and targets.
- 3 factors interact of the force operating the social field.
- 3 factors interact of the force operating the social field.
- Strength, importance, power of person providing influence.
- Immediacy, psychological, physical or social distance of person providing influence.
- Number of people providing influence.
- As influence increases it gathers influence.
Tanford and Penrod (1986) social influence model
- Minority influence increases as size of minority increases and each additional member or defector to minority adds less impact.
The Social Influence Model (SIM) predicts that as a faction increases in size, its impact increases and vice versa.
The Social Influence Model (SIM) predicts that as a faction increases in size, its impact increases and vice versa.
What is conformity
"CHANGING ONES BELIEFS OR BEHAVIOUR DUE OT REAL OR IMAGINED GROUP PRESSURE"
Sherif (1936) light autokinetic effect
Aim: Find if individuals alter opinions when reflecting as a group about measurement of a stimulus using the autokinetik effect.
Procedure: Focus on spot of light and estimate how far it moved.
This was ambiguous as there was no correct answer.
Second condition: Repeat task in groups of 3.
result: Individuals changed views so they were similar.
Those with high estimates lowered them, vise versa.
In third trial, group norm emerged.
Types of conformity
Result: 37% conformed overall.
5% conformed every trial
25% remained independant and gave correct answer.
P's doubted their eyes.
Moscovici (1969) Minority influence :INTERNALIZATION
Aim: To see if consistent minority of p's influence majority on colour perception task.
Participants: 172 p's.
- 6 p's at a time estimated 36 slides (all blue, diff shades)
- 2/6 confederates.
2 conditions
- CONSISTENT: 2 confederates called slides green all.
- INCONSISTENT: 2 c's green 24 times, blue 12 times.
Results: P's in consistent yielded and called shades green 8.4% trials.
- 32% in consistent at least once.
- Ibconsistent only 1.3%.
Conclusion: Important minority behave consistently.
- Individual members of minority maintain viewpoint with each other.
Clark (1994) MINORITY INFLUENCE
270 role play jurors.
- 12 angry men
- Guilt or not?
- Summary of murder and key pieces of evidence.
Result: Persuasive of arguments and views of jury's was manipulated by one person.
Conclusion: combo of convincing arguments and shift of majority members resulting in minority exerting greatest influence.
Zimbardo (1973) IDENTIFICATION.
Aim: How people conform to roles by observing how people adopt to guard or prisoner simulating prison life.
The brutality of prison guard in USA due to environment or sadistic personality.
Procedure: Male volunteers 2 weeks. Randomly allocated P or G.
- Arrested 9 prisoners at homes without warning. Blindfolded, stripped disinfected, given numbers not names.
- 3 guards.
Result: Guards devised on roles. Harrassed prisoners. and conformed to role thatit had to be stopped after 6 days.
Prisoners rebelled after 2 days.
- Some p's became depressed and anxious and one had to be released after one day.
Two more on 4th day.
Conclusion: Prison environment important factor = brutal guards.
People readily conform to social roles if stereotyped.
Roles played shape attitudes and behaviours.
Factors affecting conformity
Sherif (1936) light autokinetic effect
Aim: Find if individuals alter opinions when reflecting as a group about measurement of a stimulus using the autokinetik effect.
Procedure: Focus on spot of light and estimate how far it moved.
This was ambiguous as there was no correct answer.
Second condition: Repeat task in groups of 3.
result: Individuals changed views so they were similar.
Those with high estimates lowered them, vise versa.
In third trial, group norm emerged.
Types of conformity
- Compliance:
- Superficial
- Conform publicly but privately think own view. - Identification:
- Deeper type.
- Change views publicly and privately to fit in but when identification takes place the belief/behaviour may be temporary, - Internalization:
- Conversion, deepest.
- Views taken becomes part of persons cognitive system and can retain for life.
Asch (1951): majority influence COMPLIANCE.
Aim: To assess if a minority would change their minds to conform to an obviously wrong majority.
Procedure: Experimental paradigm method to study responses.
- 123 male students groups on 7-9.
- 'Visual perception' task of lines on a card.
- 18 trials, confederates gave wrong answer. (only on p)- 123 male students groups on 7-9.
- 'Visual perception' task of lines on a card.
Result: 37% conformed overall.
5% conformed every trial
25% remained independant and gave correct answer.
P's doubted their eyes.
Moscovici (1969) Minority influence :INTERNALIZATION
Aim: To see if consistent minority of p's influence majority on colour perception task.
Participants: 172 p's.
- 6 p's at a time estimated 36 slides (all blue, diff shades)
- 2/6 confederates.
2 conditions
- CONSISTENT: 2 confederates called slides green all.
- INCONSISTENT: 2 c's green 24 times, blue 12 times.
Results: P's in consistent yielded and called shades green 8.4% trials.
- 32% in consistent at least once.
- Ibconsistent only 1.3%.
Conclusion: Important minority behave consistently.
- Individual members of minority maintain viewpoint with each other.
Clark (1994) MINORITY INFLUENCE
270 role play jurors.
- 12 angry men
- Guilt or not?
- Summary of murder and key pieces of evidence.
Result: Persuasive of arguments and views of jury's was manipulated by one person.
Conclusion: combo of convincing arguments and shift of majority members resulting in minority exerting greatest influence.
Zimbardo (1973) IDENTIFICATION.
Aim: How people conform to roles by observing how people adopt to guard or prisoner simulating prison life.
The brutality of prison guard in USA due to environment or sadistic personality.
Procedure: Male volunteers 2 weeks. Randomly allocated P or G.
- Arrested 9 prisoners at homes without warning. Blindfolded, stripped disinfected, given numbers not names.
- 3 guards.
Result: Guards devised on roles. Harrassed prisoners. and conformed to role thatit had to be stopped after 6 days.
Prisoners rebelled after 2 days.
- Some p's became depressed and anxious and one had to be released after one day.
Two more on 4th day.
Conclusion: Prison environment important factor = brutal guards.
People readily conform to social roles if stereotyped.
Roles played shape attitudes and behaviours.
Factors affecting conformity
- Size of majority
- Asch's method allowed him to manipulate factors to see which influenced conformity rates.
- In one variation he manipulated size of group of confederates.
- Found conformity low when one confederate changed view.
- When group had 3 confederates, conformity was 33%. - Importance of time
- Asch in USA. Conformity high. - Importance of place and culture
Smith and Bond (1993)
- meta analysis Aschs's method study conformity.
- Conformity high in Fiji.
- Low in Belgium.
- Differences in individualistic and collectivist cultures.
Individualistic: (USA+UK) Independence and individuality.
Collectivist: Importance to social group. - Importance of modern technologies.
People interact without seeing each other e.g. chatrooms.
Crutchfield
- People unable to see each other less prone to conformity.
Tuesday, 27 December 2011
Psychological and physiological methods of stress management
1. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
- Alters irrational thoughts and cognitive biases that are assumed to be the cause of the problem.
Meichenbaums stress inoculation training (SIT)
- Alters irrational thoughts and cognitive biases that are assumed to be the cause of the problem.
Meichenbaums stress inoculation training (SIT)
- Conceptualisation: Identify sources of stress in live. Recall stressful encounters. Keep diary recording stressful experiences.
- Skills training rehearsal: Acquires specific skills to address situations.
- People with social anxiety have poor non verbal communications e.g. eye contact. They will be shown how to improve this.
- Relaxation to keep bodily arousal under control. - Application in the real world: .. Therapist will monitor progress/behaviour.
+/-:
First stages involve identifying sources of stress assessing how well you dealt with them. It is a CBT approach focusing on these elements;
First stages involve identifying sources of stress assessing how well you dealt with them. It is a CBT approach focusing on these elements;
- Stress exists when there is a gap between perceived demands and resources to cope.
-The cognitive element of SIT is aimed at producing a realistic appraisal of demands while training relevant skills aimed at increasing resources to cope with demands 'problem faced coping'. - Training in relaxation techniques gives clients control over any stressful situation. Can be emotion focused and reduces emotionally arousing effects of stress.
-Time, commitment, money ETC
Kobasa's Hardiness training (control commitment, challenge)
- Focusing: Client focuses on physiological symptoms associated with stressful situations to help identify source of stress. +helps require new skills strategies for coping.
- Reconstructing stressful situations: Cognitive strategy, encourages clients towards realistic appraisal of life stress and how coped with.
- Self improvement: Improve clients sense of self efficiency. Take on manageable sources of stress
+/-: targets appraisal sources of stress and through training the resources available for dealing with them.
- reduces gap between demand and coping resources.
- Client self efficient so can deal with future.
- time, commitment, money.
- reduces gap between demand and coping resources.
- Client self efficient so can deal with future.
- time, commitment, money.
2. Physiological of methods of stress management
Drugs
- Benzodiazepines (librium, valium):
- Anti anxiety drugs
-Act in brain, increases action of neurotransmitter GABA (Which Reduces activity of other neurotransmitters in brain) this decreases adrenaline and seratonin to relax you.
+/-: Bad side effects e.g. tiredness, impaired motor coordination.
Can lead to physical dependence.
Withdrawal symptoms e.g. raised heart rate, sleeping problems.
Doesn't target source.
Consent. - Beta blockers:
- Act on cardiovascular system of body rather than brain. (Heart)
- Reduces activation of autonomic nervous system to reduce heart rate.
+/-: No side effects
Targets physiological stress response and lowers stress related arousal.
Doesn't target source of stress ... targets physical symptoms.
Not good for long term.
Alternative methods of stress management
Biofeedback
- Combines physiological and psychological techniques.
- One wired to machine to provide feedback e.g. heart rate.
- Then helped to develop techniques to reduce symptoms e.g. meditation.
+/-: Effective to control heart rate.
- One wired to machine to provide feedback e.g. heart rate.
- Then helped to develop techniques to reduce symptoms e.g. meditation.
+/-: Effective to control heart rate.
Masters (1987)
-involves relaxation which is already a technique so may have no implication.
-involves relaxation which is already a technique so may have no implication.
Progressive muscle relaxation meditation
- Muscle relaxation common component for CBT,.
Jacobson (1938)
Jacobson (1938)
- Muscles tense and relaxed in systematic fashion.
- When more familiar, the person can go into a state of relaxation state without going through the whole process.
+/-: Gives control
Meditation has similarities with muscle relaxation. Immediate effect of reducing bodily arousal.
Meditation works against bodily arousal associated with stress.
- When more familiar, the person can go into a state of relaxation state without going through the whole process.
+/-: Gives control
Meditation has similarities with muscle relaxation. Immediate effect of reducing bodily arousal.
Meditation works against bodily arousal associated with stress.
Physical exercise
- Chronic stress = energy reserves (glucose) and fatty acids build up in bloodstream contributing to atherosclerosis.
+/-: Not clear it reduces physiological reactivity to stressors.
- P.E reduces resting levels of heart rate and blood pressure so while stress increases they start from a lower level and shouldn't be harmful.
+/-: Not clear it reduces physiological reactivity to stressors.
- P.E reduces resting levels of heart rate and blood pressure so while stress increases they start from a lower level and shouldn't be harmful.
Throne (2000)- FIREFIGHTERS
- Found regular exercise reduces levels of stress in fire fighters.
- helps lift mood indirectly copes with stress.
- Increases self efficiency.
- Enkephalins are released during exercise and act on brain to improve mood.
Social support
- helps lift mood indirectly copes with stress.
- Increases self efficiency.
- Enkephalins are released during exercise and act on brain to improve mood.
Social support
- Emotional support: Social network provide reassurance.
- Practical or instrumental support: e.g. lending money.
- Informational support: Support group, share experience and give advice.
- General network support: Self belonging and social identity improves self esteem.
Uchino, Cacioppio and Kiecolt-Glaser (1992)
-Reviewed studies on social support on body's physiological processes.
Result: Across 28 studies. degrees of social support showed consistent relationships with reduced blood pressure.
Across 19, there was a significant association between level of social support and immune function.
Result: Across 28 studies. degrees of social support showed consistent relationships with reduced blood pressure.
Across 19, there was a significant association between level of social support and immune function.
Personality factors
Type A behaviour (TAB)
- Hostile, Impatient, competitive, time pressured.
Type B behvaiour
- Patient, relaxed, easy going
Rosenham (1976)
Aim: Find out if a type A person is more likely to develop CHD as type B.
Procedure: 3454 middle ages men USA. Categorized A or B after an interview.
Followed up 8 years later
Results: 257 had heart attacks, 69% type A.
Conclusion: High TAB individuals vulnerable to heart attacks.
+/-: concept of TAB based on western concept.
Followed up 8 years later
Results: 257 had heart attacks, 69% type A.
Conclusion: High TAB individuals vulnerable to heart attacks.
+/-: concept of TAB based on western concept.
Other personality types
Eysenck (1988)
- 2 TYPES OF PERSONALITY
- Personality vulnerable to cancer, associated with expressing emotions.
- Peronality type vulnerable to CHD. Similar to TAB. High levles of anger and hostility.
+/-: No consistent evidence linking these personality types to cancer or CHD.
Derollet (2000)
- Type D personality. 'Distressed' expeience high levels of negative emotions and social inhibition.
Workplace stress
Workplace stress
Causes:
* Home/work interface: Balance demands of home and work. ‘work life balance’. Having time for both home and work responsibilities= better psychological adjustment.
* Control: high levels of control over workload= low levels of stress. Low levels of control experienced by workers lower down in the hierarchy.
* Environment: heating, lighting and physical arrangement. Could affect psychological wellbeing.
* Workload
Marmot (1997)
Aim: to investigate the negative correlation between job control and stress related illness in male and female civil servants.
Procedure: 10308 civil servants aged 35-55. 67% men, 33%women. Longitudinal study over 3 years. - Job control measured by self report surveys and independent assessment (observation) of work environment by personnel managers.
Correlation analysis carried out to test association between job control and stress related illness.
Results: p's with low job control were more likely to die of a heart attack and suffer from other stress related illnesses e.g. cancer.
Variables are negatively correlated. As control decreases, immunity decreases.
+/-: Based on self report questionnaires.
Risk of psychological harm.
Causes:
* Home/work interface: Balance demands of home and work. ‘work life balance’. Having time for both home and work responsibilities= better psychological adjustment.
* Control: high levels of control over workload= low levels of stress. Low levels of control experienced by workers lower down in the hierarchy.
* Environment: heating, lighting and physical arrangement. Could affect psychological wellbeing.
* Workload
Marmot (1997)
Aim: to investigate the negative correlation between job control and stress related illness in male and female civil servants.
Procedure: 10308 civil servants aged 35-55. 67% men, 33%women. Longitudinal study over 3 years. - Job control measured by self report surveys and independent assessment (observation) of work environment by personnel managers.
Correlation analysis carried out to test association between job control and stress related illness.
Results: p's with low job control were more likely to die of a heart attack and suffer from other stress related illnesses e.g. cancer.
Variables are negatively correlated. As control decreases, immunity decreases.
+/-: Based on self report questionnaires.
Risk of psychological harm.
Thursday, 22 December 2011
Stress in everyday life
Measuring stress
- Self report questionnaires on frequency of life stress.
- Self report questionnaires on perceived stress.
- Semi structures interviews in which the P talks through their life stress.
Holmes and Rahe (1967) -social readjustment rating scale (SRRS)
Aim: to construct instrument to measure stress defined as amount of change an individual has had to deal with during a particular amount of time.
Procedure: To rate impact of life events they asked 394 p's to compared 43 life events.
Result: LCU scores for year were associated with likelihood of physical illness within the following year. e.g. a person with LCU score of 200-300 had 50% chance of developing illness
Conclusion: High stress = high chance of illness.
+/-: bias, carried out in USA.
Retrospective.
Life changes are unexpected.
Any change is stressful, even positive.
Some life events are not every day occurances.
Rahe (1970) - NAVY PERSONELL
Aim: Investigate link between LCU's and illness in a sample of healthy p's.
Procedure: 2500 us navy personnell filled in SRRS for previous 6 mths.
Followed up over 7 mths tour of duty and all stress related illness recorded and rated for number and severity producing an overall illness score.
Results: found positive correlation between LCU scores and illness scores.
Conclusion: there is a relationship between life events and development of stress related illness as correlation was low however other factors may have been involved.
+/-: doesn't provide causality, only association
retrospective questionnaires.
- Allows people to rate 57 life events in terms of impact of both positive and negative allowing for individual differences.
This produces a positive, negative and total change.
Result: LCU scores for year were associated with likelihood of physical illness within the following year. e.g. a person with LCU score of 200-300 had 50% chance of developing illness
Conclusion: High stress = high chance of illness.
+/-: bias, carried out in USA.
Retrospective.
Life changes are unexpected.
Any change is stressful, even positive.
Some life events are not every day occurances.
Rahe (1970) - NAVY PERSONELL
Aim: Investigate link between LCU's and illness in a sample of healthy p's.
Procedure: 2500 us navy personnell filled in SRRS for previous 6 mths.
Followed up over 7 mths tour of duty and all stress related illness recorded and rated for number and severity producing an overall illness score.
Results: found positive correlation between LCU scores and illness scores.
Conclusion: there is a relationship between life events and development of stress related illness as correlation was low however other factors may have been involved.
+/-: doesn't provide causality, only association
retrospective questionnaires.
- LES Sarason
- Allows people to rate 57 life events in terms of impact of both positive and negative allowing for individual differences.
This produces a positive, negative and total change.
- Hassles and uplifts scale- Lazarus
- 117 items covering aspects of daily life.
- Life contained uplifts that counteracted negative events.
- Scores on the hassles scale correlate with stress related problems like depression and anxiety.
- Client focuses on dealing with hassles and enhancing uplifts.
- Life contained uplifts that counteracted negative events.
- Scores on the hassles scale correlate with stress related problems like depression and anxiety.
- Client focuses on dealing with hassles and enhancing uplifts.
Stress related illness and the immune system
Cohen (1993)
Aim: to investigate if life stress and negative emotions reduce immunity. He investigated role of general life stress on vulnerability to common cold.
Procedure: 394 p's completed questionnaire on number of stressful life events they had in past year.
Also rated degree of stress and their levels of negative emotions e.g. depression.
The scores were rated in 'stress index'.
P's were then exposed to the common cold.
Results: 82% infected after 7 days.
Conclusion: Chance of developing cold correlated with stress index scores.
+/-:
- This was an indirect study and there were no measures of immune function.
Evans and Eddington (1991) found the reliability of developing a cold was correlated with stress in the preceding days.
-It measures health outcomes showing a relationship between life stress and illness.
Unethical
Low population validity
Demand characteristics
No manipulation of IV and so cause and effect can't be confirmed.
This study doesn;t tell us which element of stress index is important.
Require medical supervision.
P's should be in good health prior.
Kiecolt-Glazer (1984)
Aim: interested in naturalistic life stressors and their impact on measures of immune function.
Procedure: 75 medical students preparing for exams.
As an index of immune function, they measures natural killer (NK) cell activity (part of immunity) via blood samples.
Samples taken one month before exams (low stress) and during the period (high stress).
P's completed questionnaire on experience of negative life events and social isolation.
Results: NK activity reduced in high stress samples compared to low stress samples.
Greatest reductions were in students with higher levels of social isolation.
+/-: significant reductions seen in this study are too small to increase chance of stress relayed illness.
No manipulation of IV so cause and effect relationship cannot be confirmed.
Would require medical supervision.
Aim: to investigate if life stress and negative emotions reduce immunity. He investigated role of general life stress on vulnerability to common cold.
Procedure: 394 p's completed questionnaire on number of stressful life events they had in past year.
Also rated degree of stress and their levels of negative emotions e.g. depression.
The scores were rated in 'stress index'.
P's were then exposed to the common cold.
Results: 82% infected after 7 days.
Conclusion: Chance of developing cold correlated with stress index scores.
+/-:
- This was an indirect study and there were no measures of immune function.
Evans and Eddington (1991) found the reliability of developing a cold was correlated with stress in the preceding days.
-It measures health outcomes showing a relationship between life stress and illness.
Unethical
Low population validity
Demand characteristics
No manipulation of IV and so cause and effect can't be confirmed.
This study doesn;t tell us which element of stress index is important.
Require medical supervision.
P's should be in good health prior.
Kiecolt-Glazer (1984)
Aim: interested in naturalistic life stressors and their impact on measures of immune function.
Procedure: 75 medical students preparing for exams.
As an index of immune function, they measures natural killer (NK) cell activity (part of immunity) via blood samples.
Samples taken one month before exams (low stress) and during the period (high stress).
P's completed questionnaire on experience of negative life events and social isolation.
Results: NK activity reduced in high stress samples compared to low stress samples.
Greatest reductions were in students with higher levels of social isolation.
+/-: significant reductions seen in this study are too small to increase chance of stress relayed illness.
No manipulation of IV so cause and effect relationship cannot be confirmed.
Would require medical supervision.
Monday, 19 December 2011
Body's response to stress
The transactional model- Cox and Mackay
-model of stress defining stress as an imbalance between perceived demands of an individual and their perceives coping resources.
- TM sees stress as depending on the persons perception of themselves and the world around them.
-Key process divided into primary appraisal and secondary appraisal.
-model of stress defining stress as an imbalance between perceived demands of an individual and their perceives coping resources.
- TM sees stress as depending on the persons perception of themselves and the world around them.
-Key process divided into primary appraisal and secondary appraisal.
- Primary appraisal- person appraises/assesses the situation to identify potential threats or demands
- Secondary appraisal- Persona appraises their ability to cope with threatening situation.
-When an imbalance exists between perceives demands and perceives coping resources then a state pf stress exits biologically and psychologically.
The body's response
- Appraises stressful situation, evaluating using previous experiences.
- Signals sent to Hypothalamus to activate
- Signals sent to Hypothalamus to activate
- HPA- Hypothalamic pituitary axis
- SAM- Sympathetic adrenal medullary pathway
-Pituitary gland sits beneath hypothalamus. This releases the hormone ACTH (Adrenocorticotrophic hormone) into bloodstream which travels to the adrenal cortex (part of the adrenal gland), these adrenal glands are located near the kidneys.
- When ACTH reaches adrenal cortex corticosteroids released which has physiological effects on the body.
- The SNS controls the internal organs such as the heart. Nerve pathways of the SNS start in brain and travel into spinal cord and nerves to the various parts of the body organs. One of these is the adrenal medulla which along with adrenal cortex makes up the adrenal gland. SNS stimulates gland to produce adrenaline and noradrenaline into blood stream.
- ANS unconsciously controls our internal organs automatically. It instincts the hypothalamus to release ACTH from pituitary gland.
- The hypothalamus commands the ANS to activate the SNS resulting in an increase release of adrenaline+noradrenaline.
***- Prolonged activation in the case of prolonged stress means there is constant release of fatty acids which builds up and narrows the arteries. 'Furring up the arteries' is called 'atherosclerosis'
-Raised corticosteroids over a long time suppress the bodies immune system.
Selye's general adaptation syndrome GAS
Found when rats put under stress of an injection they developed stomach ulcers.
Stage 1: ALARM
-stressor is perceived. HPA axis and SAM pathway activated. Hormones surge and heart and blood pressure increase and energy reserves are mobilised.
Stage 2: RESISTANCE
- If stressor persists the body's response systems maintain their activation, hormones and arousal remain high.
Stage 3: EXHAUSTION
- Chronic stress exhausts body's immunity and the ability to maintain high levels of stress hormones. Illness likely to develop.
+/-: Influential in developing of stress and related illness.
Psychology as a science. High reliability and validity.
He took a response based approach to stress which ignores individual differences and cognitive elements of perception and appraisal.
A lot of his work based on rats.
Shows stress related isn't caused by exhaustion, it's caused by if it's chronic.
- When ACTH reaches adrenal cortex corticosteroids released which has physiological effects on the body.
- The SNS controls the internal organs such as the heart. Nerve pathways of the SNS start in brain and travel into spinal cord and nerves to the various parts of the body organs. One of these is the adrenal medulla which along with adrenal cortex makes up the adrenal gland. SNS stimulates gland to produce adrenaline and noradrenaline into blood stream.
- ANS unconsciously controls our internal organs automatically. It instincts the hypothalamus to release ACTH from pituitary gland.
- The hypothalamus commands the ANS to activate the SNS resulting in an increase release of adrenaline+noradrenaline.
***- Prolonged activation in the case of prolonged stress means there is constant release of fatty acids which builds up and narrows the arteries. 'Furring up the arteries' is called 'atherosclerosis'
-Raised corticosteroids over a long time suppress the bodies immune system.
Selye's general adaptation syndrome GAS
Found when rats put under stress of an injection they developed stomach ulcers.
Stage 1: ALARM
-stressor is perceived. HPA axis and SAM pathway activated. Hormones surge and heart and blood pressure increase and energy reserves are mobilised.
Stage 2: RESISTANCE
- If stressor persists the body's response systems maintain their activation, hormones and arousal remain high.
Stage 3: EXHAUSTION
- Chronic stress exhausts body's immunity and the ability to maintain high levels of stress hormones. Illness likely to develop.
+/-: Influential in developing of stress and related illness.
Psychology as a science. High reliability and validity.
He took a response based approach to stress which ignores individual differences and cognitive elements of perception and appraisal.
A lot of his work based on rats.
Shows stress related isn't caused by exhaustion, it's caused by if it's chronic.
Thursday, 15 December 2011
Disruption of attachment
The short and long term effects of separation
SHORT TERM
Robertson and Bowlby PDD model (1952)- PROTEST, DESPAIR, DETACHMENT.
- Protest: When parent leaves, child try to escape from others.
- Despair: Angry protest will subside but will refuse others comfort.
- Detachment: Child may begin to engage with others. Reject caregiver and show anger on return.
Robertson (1969)
- Found a child who was put into a residential care for 9 days while his mother was in hospital went from being securely attached to insecure ambivalent. After many months he still remained angry towards his mother.
+/-: high validity as naturalistic experiment. Although case study.
Culture bound.
DATED.
- Found a child who was put into a residential care for 9 days while his mother was in hospital went from being securely attached to insecure ambivalent. After many months he still remained angry towards his mother.
+/-: high validity as naturalistic experiment. Although case study.
Culture bound.
DATED.
LONG TERM
Bowlby's maternal deprivation hypothesis
- Continual disruption of attachment between infant and caregiver= cognitive, social and emotional difficulties.e.g. aggression, depression and affectionless psychopathy.
Bowlby (1944)- 44 Thieves.
Aim: Investigate effects of maternal deprivation on 'delinguents' to see if they suffered deprivation.
Procedure: Interviewed 44 adolescent thieves. Had 'control' group of 44 p's who were in clinic due to emotional issues who hadn't commited crimes. Also interviewed parents about any separation during the 'critical period'.
Results: Over half thieves were separated from mother for more than 6 months in first 5 years. In control group, only 2 had this separation. 32% of thieves showed 'affectionless psychopathy'.
Conclusion: Anti social behaviour in first group caused by maternal deprivation.
+/-:
Retrospective
Correlational, cause and effect.
Results: Over half thieves were separated from mother for more than 6 months in first 5 years. In control group, only 2 had this separation. 32% of thieves showed 'affectionless psychopathy'.
Conclusion: Anti social behaviour in first group caused by maternal deprivation.
+/-:
Retrospective
Correlational, cause and effect.
Effects of privation "lack of attachment"
Kaluchova- twin boys
- Locked in celler alone, beaten and scared of adults.
- Were given rehab and developed attachments.
- Went to mainstream school.
Conclusion: Shows children can recover from situations if given sufficient aftercare.
Curtis (1977) Genie
- Locked in room by father until she was 13.5 yrs.
- When found she couldn't stand or speak.
- She showed a disinterest to other people.
Conclusion: Lack of recovery could be due to early emotional privation or the late age of being discovered which is well past Bowlby's sensitive age for attachment.
Effects of institutionalization
Tizard and Hodges (1989)
Aim: Examine effects of institutional upbringing on later attachments.
Procedure:
-Naturalistic experiment (IV changed naturally)+longitudinal.
- 65 children in care home assessed over 16 years.
- P's were 16 and in care since 4 yrs.
- Unable to form attachments.
- At 2 yrs they had 24 carers each.
- At 4 yrs;
Kaluchova- twin boys
- Locked in celler alone, beaten and scared of adults.
- Were given rehab and developed attachments.
- Went to mainstream school.
Conclusion: Shows children can recover from situations if given sufficient aftercare.
Curtis (1977) Genie
- Locked in room by father until she was 13.5 yrs.
- When found she couldn't stand or speak.
- She showed a disinterest to other people.
Conclusion: Lack of recovery could be due to early emotional privation or the late age of being discovered which is well past Bowlby's sensitive age for attachment.
Effects of institutionalization
Tizard and Hodges (1989)
Aim: Examine effects of institutional upbringing on later attachments.
Procedure:
-Naturalistic experiment (IV changed naturally)+longitudinal.
- 65 children in care home assessed over 16 years.
- P's were 16 and in care since 4 yrs.
- Unable to form attachments.
- At 2 yrs they had 24 carers each.
- At 4 yrs;
- 25 returned to biological parents
- 33 adopted
- 7 remained in care with occasional fostering
- Parents/guardians were interviewed.
- Self report questionnaires on 'social diffulties'.
- Questionnaires to teachers about relationships with peers and teachers.
- Self report questionnaires on 'social diffulties'.
- Questionnaires to teachers about relationships with peers and teachers.
Result: At 16, majority of adoptive mothers felt a deep attachment to child.
- Half restored kids were deeply attached.
- Ex-institutional kids had problems with siblings.
- Ex institutional kids had poorer relationships with peers than comparison group. They weren't often liked by others and bullied more.
- Half restored kids were deeply attached.
- Ex-institutional kids had problems with siblings.
- Ex institutional kids had poorer relationships with peers than comparison group. They weren't often liked by others and bullied more.
Conclusion: Children deprived of close relationships in first years of life can form attachments later depending on adult concerned and how attachment is nurtures.
- Adopted children had closer relationships as parents were often financially better off, had fewer children and were more motivated to develop a relationship with them.
Evaluation: Natural experiment= HEV. However allows little control over confounding variables e.g. some being fostered occasionally. This could have been due to children having problems so are unwanted.
P attrition, only 51 of 65 were questioned at age of 8.
- Adopted children had closer relationships as parents were often financially better off, had fewer children and were more motivated to develop a relationship with them.
Evaluation: Natural experiment= HEV. However allows little control over confounding variables e.g. some being fostered occasionally. This could have been due to children having problems so are unwanted.
P attrition, only 51 of 65 were questioned at age of 8.
Effects of institutionalisation
- Reactive detachment
- Child unable to trust or love others. Isolated and selfisj. Unable to understand the needs of others. Can become without a conscience. - Disinhibited attachment
- Children select attachment figures indiscriminately and behave in overly familiar fashion with strangers. Attention seeking. - Poor parenting
- Mental disorders
- Physical underdevelopment
Rutter (2007) (evidence for disinhibited attachment)Aim: To see if good care could compensate for privation previously.
Procedure:
- on going longitudinal study since 1998.
- 118 Romanian orphans adopted into British families.
- Natural experiment, age of adoption being the IV.- Studied 3 groups
Procedure:
- on going longitudinal study since 1998.
- 118 Romanian orphans adopted into British families.
- Natural experiment, age of adoption being the IV.- Studied 3 groups
- Adopted before 6 months old
- Adopted between 6 mths-2 yrs.
- Adopted after 2 years.
Result:
- At 6 yrs the kids made good recoveries although group 3 had a higher level of disinhibited attachment.
- Rutter returned in 2007 to the children who were 11 yrs now, found they made recoveries but half of those diagnose with it at 6 still had it at 11.
Conclusion:
Children exposed to privation more likely to make a fuller recovery if adopted into a caring environment at early age.
- At 6 yrs the kids made good recoveries although group 3 had a higher level of disinhibited attachment.
- Rutter returned in 2007 to the children who were 11 yrs now, found they made recoveries but half of those diagnose with it at 6 still had it at 11.
Conclusion:
Children exposed to privation more likely to make a fuller recovery if adopted into a caring environment at early age.
Can children recover from institutionalization and privation: Deepends on 4 factors
- Quality of care at institution
Dontas
- Looked at 15 babies 7-9 months, each given a member of staff and formed attachment with them. After 2 weeks he found babies adjusted well and formed secure attachments. Shows importance for institutionalized kids to form attachments between 7 and 8 months. - Age of child when recovered from privation industrialisation
- Those removed from privation younger made better developmental progree both cognitively and emotionally. - Quality of care after privation/Institutionalization
- Better if in loving and supportive environment. - Experiences later in life
Quinton and Rutter
- Found positive experiences in early adulthood led to different developmental pathways showed it isn't just early experiences that influence later development. Early affects can be overcome but good experiences later in life.
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Tuesday, 29 November 2011
How day care affects children's social development
The affects:
Andersson (1089)
Found children in lower and middle class homes including 1 and 2 parent families in daycare are more sociable and outgoing and have higher IQ.
HOWEVER
-Also conducted same thing in Texas and found the opposite.
-This is because;
in Sweden, their first year is spent with carer so they form stronger attachments before they start care. Therefore the stress of going to care will have less effect as they are securely attached. Sweden also has more financial support resulting in lower child/carer ratio and highly trained staff.
In Texas they may have less time to form this close attachment first. Low standard and poor quality of care.
Campbell, Lamb and Hwang (2002)
Aim: aimed to examine the effects of day care on children.
Procedure: Studied 18mths-3.5 years of kids in Sweden.
-9 attended family based care, 30 nursery and a further 9 switching from family to nursery. They were compared with kids who didn't get into day care due to competition.
-At 18mths (before daycare) kids were observed playing with family. Researcher assessed standard of care they were receiving.
-They were then observed at day care for 30 mins, repeated at ages 2.5 and 3.5.
-Age 6.5 their social competence was measured by asking carer.
-At 8.5 teachers were asked to give their perceptions on behaviour.
-At 15 they visited their homes asking them to complete questionnaires on social development and style.
Result:
- Day care kids before 3.5 have better social abilities.
-Social competence stable between 3.5 and 15 yrs.
-Kids social skills developed by 3.5 yrs.
Conclusion: Good quality care for children up to 3.5 yrs important for development of social skills and competence persists through childhood and adolescence.
Kids who spend long at day care become tired and frustrated to share adult attentions leading to bad interactions. Those who spend more days and shorter sessions gain better social benefits.
Evaluation:
Used perspective approach following children to 15 yrs allowing us to see long term effects.
Study required sensitivity with dealing with both kids and parents.
All kids were assessed beforehand providing baseline of social skills at start
Can day care have negative effects
Borge (2004)
-Found in Canada more aggression in kids that were home reared than day care.
Clark-Stewart (1992)
-argues children simply learn to look after themselves at and early age if attend day care.
Maccoby and Lewis (2003)
-Argued more hrs spent in day care before 4.5 yrs correlated with negative social outcomes.
-These findings are a result from kids need to develop independence at early age if attend day care.
Comparing different types of day care
Melsuih (1990)
carried out a quasi experiment comparing 3 groups of kids in London who started day care before 9 months old.
-3 day care settings: relative care, childminder and private nursery.
-Assessed children at 18 months and 3 yrs for their language skills and ability to cooperate and share with others.
Result: at 18 months the relative group showed highest level of language skills.
At 3 years, the nursery childen were less advances but showed higher levels of pro social behaviour.
Difficult to assess the effects of day care because:
Andersson (1089)
Found children in lower and middle class homes including 1 and 2 parent families in daycare are more sociable and outgoing and have higher IQ.
HOWEVER
-Also conducted same thing in Texas and found the opposite.
-This is because;
in Sweden, their first year is spent with carer so they form stronger attachments before they start care. Therefore the stress of going to care will have less effect as they are securely attached. Sweden also has more financial support resulting in lower child/carer ratio and highly trained staff.
In Texas they may have less time to form this close attachment first. Low standard and poor quality of care.
Campbell, Lamb and Hwang (2002)
Aim: aimed to examine the effects of day care on children.
Procedure: Studied 18mths-3.5 years of kids in Sweden.
-9 attended family based care, 30 nursery and a further 9 switching from family to nursery. They were compared with kids who didn't get into day care due to competition.
-At 18mths (before daycare) kids were observed playing with family. Researcher assessed standard of care they were receiving.
-They were then observed at day care for 30 mins, repeated at ages 2.5 and 3.5.
-Age 6.5 their social competence was measured by asking carer.
-At 8.5 teachers were asked to give their perceptions on behaviour.
-At 15 they visited their homes asking them to complete questionnaires on social development and style.
Result:
- Day care kids before 3.5 have better social abilities.
-Social competence stable between 3.5 and 15 yrs.
-Kids social skills developed by 3.5 yrs.
Conclusion: Good quality care for children up to 3.5 yrs important for development of social skills and competence persists through childhood and adolescence.
Kids who spend long at day care become tired and frustrated to share adult attentions leading to bad interactions. Those who spend more days and shorter sessions gain better social benefits.
Evaluation:
Used perspective approach following children to 15 yrs allowing us to see long term effects.
Study required sensitivity with dealing with both kids and parents.
All kids were assessed beforehand providing baseline of social skills at start
Can day care have negative effects
Borge (2004)
-Found in Canada more aggression in kids that were home reared than day care.
Clark-Stewart (1992)
-argues children simply learn to look after themselves at and early age if attend day care.
Maccoby and Lewis (2003)
-Argued more hrs spent in day care before 4.5 yrs correlated with negative social outcomes.
-These findings are a result from kids need to develop independence at early age if attend day care.
Comparing different types of day care
Melsuih (1990)
carried out a quasi experiment comparing 3 groups of kids in London who started day care before 9 months old.
-3 day care settings: relative care, childminder and private nursery.
-Assessed children at 18 months and 3 yrs for their language skills and ability to cooperate and share with others.
Result: at 18 months the relative group showed highest level of language skills.
At 3 years, the nursery childen were less advances but showed higher levels of pro social behaviour.
Difficult to assess the effects of day care because:
- Families using day care differ from those using relatives for childcare
Those using family based care have stronger identities as mothers. - Different temperaments of children
Some will benefit more from day care than others.
- Variety of day care settings
Arrangements differ in terms of adult-child ratios, family or nursery based - Time spent in day care
Children start at different ages so it is hard to compare - Varying quality of day care settings.
Monday, 28 November 2011
Implications of research into attachment for childcare practices.
Attachment research has influences childcare by:
- Child needs to have secure attachment with adult
- Child can have multiple attachments with range of adults.
- Child needs to use attachment figure as a safe base and explore environment and seek security.
Steele (2001)
-Found children in S.S had increased levels of cortisol (stress hormone) up to half an hour after parent returned from a brief separation.
-Found children in S.S had increased levels of cortisol (stress hormone) up to half an hour after parent returned from a brief separation.
Watamura (2006)
Compares levels of cortisol in same group of infants at diff days of week at nursery or home.
Found cortisol levels increased from morning to afternoon when babies in day care but more at home.
Increased greatest at kids from 24-36 months (After critical period, shows attachment formed)
Found cortisol levels increased from morning to afternoon when babies in day care but more at home.
Increased greatest at kids from 24-36 months (After critical period, shows attachment formed)
Good quality care includes:
Campbell (2000)- structural characteristics of good care
- Low adult child ratio
- Small sized group (less strangers)
- Mixed age group
- Well trained staff
-quality relates to childs actual experiences of day care in terms of emotional environment including,
- Secure attachment
- Structured day
Cultural variations in attachment
-people bring children up differently for different abilities and qualities
Van Ijendoorn and Kroonberg (1988)
Aim: To test Ainsworth's strange situation cross culturally.
Procedure: meta analysis on 32 studies in 8 countries of strange situation to see difference between cultures.
Result:
- Secure attachments (B): Most common. 50& in China, 75% great Britain and Sweden.
- Avoidant attachment (A): common in western countries. Rare in Israel and Japan.
- Ambivalent attachments (C):Israel, China and Japan high rate. Low rate in Scandinavian countries.
Van Ijendoorn and Kroonberg (1988)
Aim: To test Ainsworth's strange situation cross culturally.
Procedure: meta analysis on 32 studies in 8 countries of strange situation to see difference between cultures.
Result:
- Secure attachments (B): Most common. 50& in China, 75% great Britain and Sweden.
- Avoidant attachment (A): common in western countries. Rare in Israel and Japan.
- Ambivalent attachments (C):Israel, China and Japan high rate. Low rate in Scandinavian countries.
+/-: 27 carried out in individualistic, 5 in collectivist. No ethical issues as is secondary
Conclusion: attachment types vary between cultures. Responses to S.S reflect child rearing. E.g. In West Germany where independence is encourages, babies showed little distress avoidant. Also shows that babies need to spend time with attachment figure.
Types of attachment
AINSWORTH
Aim: interested in exploring different types of attachment between babies and caregiver
Procedure: 1-18 months observes in lab playroom.
1. m+b play
2. 3 mins later, s+m talk
3. s play with b
4. m leaves, b cries, s comforts.
5. 3 mins later m returns, s leaves
6. 3 mins later, m leaves baby alone.
7. s enters to comfort
8. m teturns, s leaves
Allows to assess separation anxiety+stranger anxiety
Results: Idenitifed 3 types of behaviour
Aim: interested in exploring different types of attachment between babies and caregiver
Procedure: 1-18 months observes in lab playroom.
1. m+b play
2. 3 mins later, s+m talk
3. s play with b
4. m leaves, b cries, s comforts.
5. 3 mins later m returns, s leaves
6. 3 mins later, m leaves baby alone.
7. s enters to comfort
8. m teturns, s leaves
Allows to assess separation anxiety+stranger anxiety
Results: Idenitifed 3 types of behaviour
- Secure infants (B) 70%
Mother safe base
happy to explore room when present
distress when alone
welcome mum back
wary of stranger - Insecure avoidant attachment (A) 15%
some distress when left by mum and didnt seek comfort on return.
reject stranger
keep distance and avoid closeness - Insecure ambivalent (C) 15%
upset on separation
not easily comforted when mother returned as angry she left
Alternated seeking closeness and distance
Main and Solomon (1986)
Some babies didn't fit into any of the categories so developed a Type 4 which is 'disorganised attachment'
Some babies didn't fit into any of the categories so developed a Type 4 which is 'disorganised attachment'
Sunday, 27 November 2011
Explanations of attachment
Learning theory - Dollard and Miller (1950)
Operant conditioning:
Skinner: LEVER FOOD
- Behaviourist, worked with rats, placed rat in cage.
- When rat pressed lever they got food.
- Repeated for food
Operant conditioning: behaviour =reward
Positive reinforcement: repeated
Negative reinforcement: not repeated due to punishment
-In reference to humans the child realises the person supplying the food becomes a source of reward and the infant becomes attached
Classical conditioning -learn through associationPavlov:
Dog associated keeper footsteps with meal
Unconditioned stimulus (reflex) =milk
Unconditioned response= satiation
Neutral stimulus= person feeding them
Conditioned response= pleasure and relief
Harlow (1959)-8 infant monkeys until 8 months.
-2 surrogate mothers, wire food and blanket.
-When frightened, monkey ran to blanket mum and formed attachment.
SLT:
modelling, observation, imitation BANDURA.
Evolutionary explanations
Attachment helps for babies survival, ensuring food and safety. Also provides template for future relationships. Similar to Lorenz' imprinting.
Bowlby- 3 important features
- infants and carers are programmed to become attached
- as attachment is a biological process, it takes place during a critical period of fevelopment or not at all.
-attachment plays a role in later development- monotropy and the continuity hypothesis.
Any inherited behaviour that increases an individuals chances of survival and reproduction will be passe don to the next generation.
-the result is infants are both programmed to become attached and adults are also programmed to form this relationship.
Support for the continuity hypothesis:
Hazan and Shaver (1987): LOVE QUIZ
Aim: to investigate the continuity hypothesis
Procedure: To complete a 'love quiz' in american paper reporting on 3 descriptions applied to feelings/experiences about romance and adjective checklist about childhood relationship with parents.
Randomly selected from paper p's and students.
Result: found strong relationship beyween childhood attachment and adulthood attachment type.
Concluded:
-secure: loveable
-anxious avoidant: depressing
-anxious ambivalent: fell in love easily
Support for monotropy:
schaffer and Emerson 60 GLASGOW BABIES
found:
65% first attachent was mother
3% babies from with father
27% joint attachment
Separation anxiety shown at 6-8 months =attachment formed.
Formation of attachment
How can we see two people have an attachment
Maccoby (1980):
Argued we see if two people have an attachment by looking at the behaviours;
- Seeking proximity: two people want to be near each other. Separation distress
- Distress on separation: Separation distress. Older child gets homesick.
- Joy on reunion: Baby welcome back carer, clinging.
- General orientation of behaviour towards other person: B+C direct attention and engage with each other with acitivities etc.
How do babies develop attachment
Lorenz
Aim: To see how quickly attachments form in geese
Procedure: Used geese.
divided goose eggs into 2 groups
- Group 1= placed under mother
- Group 2= kept in incubator
Lorenz was the first living thing group 2 saw.
Results: Gosling formed attachment with Lorenz and followed him around.
After hatch Lorenz put them in a hatch and had to seek own mother.
Group 1= went to goose.
Group 2= went to Lorenz.
Conclusion: This formation of rapid attachment is called 'imprinting' occurs between 13 and 16 hours after birth (critical period). After 31 hours, the tendency to imprint passes and attachment can't form.
Formation of bons between parents and babies
Klaus and Kennell (1976)
Aim: find out whether early skins to skin contact lead to closer bond formation between mother and baby.
Procedure: Babies usually taken from mothers and kept in nurser.
K+K took 2 groups of mothers in American hospital and followed them from birth til baby was 1.
-Group 1 (control): Had routine contact, saw baby after delivery and brought back for feed.
-Group 2 (experimental): Had extended contact. Extra hrs.
Results: Group 2 showed soothing behaviours and maintained close proximity to babies to baby in contrast to group 1.
Conclusion: The study indicates there may be a sensitive period immediately after birth.
Evaluation: Findings changed hospital practice in westernised child birth so mum and babies were together.
Evidence for Maccoby's behaviours i.e. 'seeking proximity' and 'general orientation of behaviour towards eachother'.
Mothers were unnamed.
Low ecological validity and demand characteristics.
Formation of attachments
Schaffer and Emerson (1964):
Aim: To see the gradual developments of attachments
Procedure: 60 glasgow babies, visit monthly for a year and returning at 18 months.
Collected data by observation and interviews on separation anxiety and stranger distress.
They approached babies to see if they had stranger fear and interviewed mother on babies responses to situations on a scale of 1-4 e.g. being left alone.
Results: 65% first attachent was mother
3% babies from with father
27% joint attachment
Separation anxiety shown at 6-8 months =attachment formed.
Conclusion:
Asocial stage (0-6 wks):
-Similar response to objects and people
-No favour of people.
-Look at face and eyes
-Discriminate unfamiliar people by smell and voice
Indiscriminate attachments (6 wks -6 month):
-Sociable
-Recognise people
-Like human company
-No favour
-No stranger fear
Specific attachments (7 months +)
-Separation anxiety
Multiple attachments (10 months +)
-e.g. grandparents.
Wednesday, 23 November 2011
Strategies for memory improvement
1. The role of organisation
Mnemonics based on visual imagery:
-Peg word system and Method of Loci.
Paivio 1965: (DUAL CODING HYPOTHESIS)
Found p's recall concrete nouns better than abstract words. Explained findings in terms of dual coding hypothesis where concrete words are encoded once as a verbal code and then as a visual image. In terms of the WMM, verbally presented items and visual images would be held in different loops so would be easy to do.
Organisation and understanding
If we understand context, we're more likely to remember.
Bransford and Johnson (1972): (LAUNDRY)
read a passage to 2 groups, only one knew the title. This helped them understand it and made them able to recall it.
Chunking:
-Increases STM capacity, reduces load on memory and is more understandable.
Katona: (REDUCE LOAD ON MEMORY)
found chunking involves organising material to make it more understandable and reduces load on memory in her digit span task.
Encoding and retrieval strategies:
- Encoding specificity principle: 'recall better when retrieval context like encoding context'
Ucros (1989): (MOOD STATE DEPEDANCY)reviewed study on mood state dependent memory. Found a better recall if mood matched when learned.
Active processing:
Craik and Lockhart (1975): (ENGAGEMENT WITH STIMULUS= GOOD MEMORY)
carried out a memory test in four conditions. Found meaningful engagement with the stimulus leads to better recall and p's don't have to make a deliberate effort to remember.
They believed semantic processing is effective as it activates numbers associated with LTM, retrieval easier as more retrieval routes set up.
The role of attention and practice:
People won't remember anything if no attention is paid
Erricson and Chase (1981): (REVISING)
studied an individual who practiced memorising a list of digits an hour a day for two years showing the importance of practice.
Mnemonics based on visual imagery:
-Peg word system and Method of Loci.
Paivio 1965: (DUAL CODING HYPOTHESIS)
Found p's recall concrete nouns better than abstract words. Explained findings in terms of dual coding hypothesis where concrete words are encoded once as a verbal code and then as a visual image. In terms of the WMM, verbally presented items and visual images would be held in different loops so would be easy to do.
Organisation and understanding
If we understand context, we're more likely to remember.
Bransford and Johnson (1972): (LAUNDRY)
read a passage to 2 groups, only one knew the title. This helped them understand it and made them able to recall it.
Chunking:
-Increases STM capacity, reduces load on memory and is more understandable.
Katona: (REDUCE LOAD ON MEMORY)
found chunking involves organising material to make it more understandable and reduces load on memory in her digit span task.
Encoding and retrieval strategies:
- Encoding specificity principle: 'recall better when retrieval context like encoding context'
Ucros (1989): (MOOD STATE DEPEDANCY)reviewed study on mood state dependent memory. Found a better recall if mood matched when learned.
Active processing:
Craik and Lockhart (1975): (ENGAGEMENT WITH STIMULUS= GOOD MEMORY)
carried out a memory test in four conditions. Found meaningful engagement with the stimulus leads to better recall and p's don't have to make a deliberate effort to remember.
They believed semantic processing is effective as it activates numbers associated with LTM, retrieval easier as more retrieval routes set up.
The role of attention and practice:
People won't remember anything if no attention is paid
Erricson and Chase (1981): (REVISING)
studied an individual who practiced memorising a list of digits an hour a day for two years showing the importance of practice.
Sunday, 20 November 2011
The working memory model
Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
Components:
-Central executive: Control, limited capacity, process info from any sensory modality. Sets goals, corrects errors starts rehearsal process, retrieves info from LTM.
SLAVE SYSTEMS WORK INDEPENDENTLY.
-Phonological loop: 'inner voice', limited capacity, temporary system holding verbal info in speech based form.
-Visuo spatial skectchpad: 'inner eye' limited capacity, temp memory system holds visuo/spatial info.
BOTH HAVE PASSIVE STORES.
-Articulatory loop: words maintained by subvocal repetition.
-Visuo Cache: Linked to 'active inner scribe' +acts as a rehearsal mechanism.
Evidence for phonological loop:
Baddeley, Thomson+Buchanan (WORD LENGTH EFFECT)
Aim: to find evidence of the existence of the phonological loop.
Procedure: visaual presentations of words listed briefly and p's wrote them down in serial order.
Condition 1- lists consisted of 5 words taken from familiar, one syllable words.
Condition 2- 5 words were polysyllabic.
Results: Average correct recall over several trials showed superiority for the short words, called the 'word length effect'.
Conclusion: They concluded that the capacity of the loop is determined by the length of time it takes to say words rather than by the number of items. This time is 1.5 secs.
Shepard and Feng (1972) (WORD CUBE 3D SHAPE)
Aim: investigate whether visual images work in a similar way to real life perception.
Procedure: p's imagined folding flat shapes to form 3D shapes and had to decide with the finished shape if the arrows would meet head on.
Result: found time taken to make the decisions was related to number of folds that were required if the p's were doing the folding.
Conclusion: visual images work in similar ways to real life perceptions. It is thought that the visuo spatial sketchpad is used in tasks like these for temp storage and manipulation of visual patterns and spatial moment. In this case people are likely to find it hard to simultaneously do tasks both requiring the visuo spatial sketchpad. This was tested below.
Evidence for the visuo spatial sketchpad
Baddeley, Grant, Wight and Thomson (1973) (TRACKING AND VISUAL TASK)
Aim: to see if p's could carry out a tracking task at same time as performing verbal task (evidence of limited resources of visuo spatial sketchpad)
Procedure: Carried out tracking task of following a spot of light, and a visual task of imagining the shapes of letters in which they had to say 'yes' or 'no' to angles being said to them of the shape.
Result: hard to do both as both needed visuo spatial sketchpad.
Evaluation: lab. low ecological validity. used repeated measures design to eliminate effects of individual differences. Distress. (ethical)
Evidence for central executive
Baddeley (1966) (KEYBOARD, ALPHABET)
Aim: to investigate functions attributed to central executive of selective attention and switching retrieval plans.
Procedure: p's generated random strings of digits by pressing keys on a keyboard while simultaneously either; reciting alphabet, counting from 1, or switching between letters and numbers.
Result: generated digit string became less random in condition 3 when p's had to switch from alphabet to numbers at same time.
Conclusion: random number generation task and alternation task competed for central executive resources.
+/- OF WORKING MEMORY MODEL
-More plausible than multi store as explains STM in terms of temp storage and active processing.
-incorperated verbal rehearsal as on process within the articulatory loop instead of just transferring info.
-can apply model to previous research e.g. digit span
-can account for findings difficult for multi store to explain e.g. selective memory.
-There's and attempt to explain how memory functions.
- Baddeley (1998) presented evidence of the phonological loop and how it plays key role in development of reading and the phonological loop is not operative in kids with dyslexia. Can be applied for real life settings. ACCOUNTS FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES.
- Doesn't offer a complete understanding of how memory works.
Components:
-Central executive: Control, limited capacity, process info from any sensory modality. Sets goals, corrects errors starts rehearsal process, retrieves info from LTM.
SLAVE SYSTEMS WORK INDEPENDENTLY.
-Phonological loop: 'inner voice', limited capacity, temporary system holding verbal info in speech based form.
-Visuo spatial skectchpad: 'inner eye' limited capacity, temp memory system holds visuo/spatial info.
BOTH HAVE PASSIVE STORES.
-Articulatory loop: words maintained by subvocal repetition.
-Visuo Cache: Linked to 'active inner scribe' +acts as a rehearsal mechanism.
Evidence for phonological loop:
Baddeley, Thomson+Buchanan (WORD LENGTH EFFECT)
Aim: to find evidence of the existence of the phonological loop.
Procedure: visaual presentations of words listed briefly and p's wrote them down in serial order.
Condition 1- lists consisted of 5 words taken from familiar, one syllable words.
Condition 2- 5 words were polysyllabic.
Results: Average correct recall over several trials showed superiority for the short words, called the 'word length effect'.
Conclusion: They concluded that the capacity of the loop is determined by the length of time it takes to say words rather than by the number of items. This time is 1.5 secs.
Shepard and Feng (1972) (WORD CUBE 3D SHAPE)
Aim: investigate whether visual images work in a similar way to real life perception.
Procedure: p's imagined folding flat shapes to form 3D shapes and had to decide with the finished shape if the arrows would meet head on.
Result: found time taken to make the decisions was related to number of folds that were required if the p's were doing the folding.
Conclusion: visual images work in similar ways to real life perceptions. It is thought that the visuo spatial sketchpad is used in tasks like these for temp storage and manipulation of visual patterns and spatial moment. In this case people are likely to find it hard to simultaneously do tasks both requiring the visuo spatial sketchpad. This was tested below.
Evidence for the visuo spatial sketchpad
Baddeley, Grant, Wight and Thomson (1973) (TRACKING AND VISUAL TASK)
Aim: to see if p's could carry out a tracking task at same time as performing verbal task (evidence of limited resources of visuo spatial sketchpad)
Procedure: Carried out tracking task of following a spot of light, and a visual task of imagining the shapes of letters in which they had to say 'yes' or 'no' to angles being said to them of the shape.
Result: hard to do both as both needed visuo spatial sketchpad.
Evaluation: lab. low ecological validity. used repeated measures design to eliminate effects of individual differences. Distress. (ethical)
Evidence for central executive
Baddeley (1966) (KEYBOARD, ALPHABET)
Aim: to investigate functions attributed to central executive of selective attention and switching retrieval plans.
Procedure: p's generated random strings of digits by pressing keys on a keyboard while simultaneously either; reciting alphabet, counting from 1, or switching between letters and numbers.
Result: generated digit string became less random in condition 3 when p's had to switch from alphabet to numbers at same time.
Conclusion: random number generation task and alternation task competed for central executive resources.
+/- OF WORKING MEMORY MODEL
-More plausible than multi store as explains STM in terms of temp storage and active processing.
-incorperated verbal rehearsal as on process within the articulatory loop instead of just transferring info.
-can apply model to previous research e.g. digit span
-can account for findings difficult for multi store to explain e.g. selective memory.
-There's and attempt to explain how memory functions.
- Baddeley (1998) presented evidence of the phonological loop and how it plays key role in development of reading and the phonological loop is not operative in kids with dyslexia. Can be applied for real life settings. ACCOUNTS FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES.
- Doesn't offer a complete understanding of how memory works.
Monday, 14 November 2011
Eyewitness Testimony
1. Effects of misleading info on accuracy of EWT
Loftus (1975) (CAR ACCIDENT. BARN)
Aim: EWT affected by what happens after event as memories are subject to distortion by post even info. This is called misinformation acceptance. She tested this.
Procedure: shows p's films of events leading up to a car accident. They were divided into 2 groups.
Control group- asked questions that actually happened.
Experimental group- asked question with misleading info (barn)
Results: 17% of exp group reported seeing barn, 3% control group made this error.
Conclusion: p's given misleading post event info absorbed this as actual event.
Aim: EWT affected by what happens after event as memories are subject to distortion by post even info. This is called misinformation acceptance. She tested this.
Procedure: shows p's films of events leading up to a car accident. They were divided into 2 groups.
Control group- asked questions that actually happened.
Experimental group- asked question with misleading info (barn)
Results: 17% of exp group reported seeing barn, 3% control group made this error.
Conclusion: p's given misleading post event info absorbed this as actual event.
Loftus (1978)
Aim: there is no real change to original memory, but p's alter what they say as a result of demand c's.
Procedure: offered reward money if they could correctly recall details from film of accident.
group1- was pedestrian knocked over by a car, stopped at stop sign.
group 2- stopped at yield sign.
2 days later, p's given q's about accident including misleading info of reference to 'stop and yield sign (vise versa)
p's then looked at slides pointing out what was the real film. They were divided into 4 groups.
1. no reward
2. $1 each correct answer
3. $5 each correct answer
4. $25 person in group scoring most points.
Results: 70% p's made error on misleading info despite the offer of reward showing their original memory had been altered as a result of misleading post event info.
Loftus and Palmer (1974):
Aim: there is no real change to original memory, but p's alter what they say as a result of demand c's.
Procedure: offered reward money if they could correctly recall details from film of accident.
group1- was pedestrian knocked over by a car, stopped at stop sign.
group 2- stopped at yield sign.
2 days later, p's given q's about accident including misleading info of reference to 'stop and yield sign (vise versa)
p's then looked at slides pointing out what was the real film. They were divided into 4 groups.
1. no reward
2. $1 each correct answer
3. $5 each correct answer
4. $25 person in group scoring most points.
Results: 70% p's made error on misleading info despite the offer of reward showing their original memory had been altered as a result of misleading post event info.
Loftus and Palmer (1974):
Aim: memories can become distorted by info after event.
Procedure: Independent measures design. Independent variable used is the verb. The dependent variable in p's first exp is speed estimate. In second its whether they believed they saw glass or not.45 students from Washington uni.
Watched a car crash and had 5 conditions of which the verb changed.
Results: The verb effected speed estimates. The mean average of smashed was 40mph in contrast to the 'contacted' of 31mph.
Evaluation: results could be due to response bias factors, the p could have been unsure therefore adjusts their estimation to fit with the expectations of the questioner.
2nd experiment
Procedure: 150 students viewed 4 second car accident on film. The independent variable was manipulated by the wording of the question.
3 conditions of changing the verb e.g. smashed
One week later the p's answered qs about it and were asked if they saw any broken glass (there was none)
Results: the majority reported seeing glass.
Conclusion: the verb had an effect on the mis-perception of glass.
Two kinds of info go into memory of event. First is the info obtained from actual event, second is info supplied after event.
Other factors affecting accuracy of EWT
-reconstructive memory which is storing replica of events. We blend in elements of our knowledge and experience to make it memorable= a schema.
List (1986) (SHOPLIFTING)
Aim: to investigate the above schema idea.
Procedure: drew list of elements that may occur in shoplifting scenario. P's had to rate in order how likely these were to occur in a shoplifting accident. She then compiled a video of 8 shoplifting incidents that included elements that people rated as high probability and low and showed them to new p's. A week later they had to recall them.
Result: p's more likely to recall high probability than low and reported seeing high elements that weren't in the video.
Conclusion: due to the gap between seeing the videos and being asked questions about it, p's lost some info of the exact replica therefore blended in elements of their own knowledge and experience to make it more memorable.
Tuckey and Brewer (2003)
Aim: Further investigated reconstructive memory and schema.
Procedure: found people think schema of robbers = dark clothes, male etc. They showed video of a bank robbery
Result: found p's had better recall for elements of film that conformed to their schema than to elements that didn't.
Conclusion: schema affects memory and recall of an event as this idea has already stored itself in the individuals memory.
3. How to improve accuracy of EWT
The cognitive interview technique
Fisher (1987)
-studied real interviews by detectives in Florida over 4 months. Found witnesses were bombarded with brief, direct, close ended questions, were interrupted and not allowed to talk freely, broke concentration and encourage short answers with less detail.
-On the basis of this,
Geiselman (1985)
developed the cognitive interview technique as a more effective tool for police investigations.
1. Context reinstatement
2. report everything
3. recall from changed perspective
4. recall in reverse order
-this provided cues, open ended qs etc.
Fisher (1990)
-demonstrated effects of CIT in police in Miami.
Trained detectives to use enhances CIT with genuine crime witness and found it increased recall.
Factors which effect eye witness testimony
1. Consequentiality:
Studies are too controlled therefore p's are usually aware that they are in an artificial situation and their responses will not have any consequences.
Foster (1994)- (BANK ROBBERY)
Aim: to see if witnesses more likely to be accurate if they believed their evidence would influence a conviction.
Procedure: p's watched a video of a robbery and had to pick out the robbers from an identity parade. They were told it was genuine whereas the others knew it was a simulation.
Result: p's more accurate in condition where testimony had consequences.
Evaluation: artificial.
It is an indication that factors operating in real life situations are different than those in experimental situations.
2. Previous experience:
the witness may combine what they had seen in the past and what they had recently seen together and create a whole new scene.
3. Individual differences:
Some people more susceptible to misinformation than others.Tomes and Katz (1997) 'share the following characteristics'
- Poor recall for event
-score high on measures of imagery vividness
-score high on scores on measures of empathy
People also resist misleading information if it is blatently incorrect.
Loftus (1979) (RED PURSE)
Aim: To test misleading information
Procedure: gave p's set of slides of a red purse being stolen. They were then given an account of event including errors e.g. 'the purse was brown'
Result: In a recall test all but two of p's resisted the misinfo.
Conclusion: memory for info particularly striking at the time is less susceptible to effects of misinfo than memory for peripheral details.
4. Age of witness:
Children are susceptible than adults to absorbing post event info into original memory.Poole and Lindsay (2001) (SCIENCE DEMONSTRATION)
Aim: To find out if the same factors that affect accuracy in adults also operate in children and to investigate whether children are more susceptible to absorbing post event info.
Procedure: engaged 3-8 yr old into science demonstration. The parents read them a story which contained elements from the demonstration. They were then questioned about the demonstration. In a second phase of the exp the children were asked to recall where they got the info from.
Result: they incorporated new info from story in original memory.
Phase 2 the older kids revised their account of the demonstration however younger children couldn't do it.
Gordon (2001): (KIDS ACCURATE BUT SUSCEPTIBLE TO SUGGESTION)
'children provide detailed and accurate witness statements but susceptible to suggestion and account should be reviewed with caution.'
Davies (1994): (KIDS VALUABLE TESTIMONY)
'differences between kids and adults show kids provide valuable testimony provided care is taken in interviewing process.'
'children provide detailed and accurate witness statements but susceptible to suggestion and account should be reviewed with caution.'
Davies (1994): (KIDS VALUABLE TESTIMONY)
'differences between kids and adults show kids provide valuable testimony provided care is taken in interviewing process.'
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