Individual differences in independent behaviour

Personality characteristics
Crutchfield: Conformers= low self esteem and less intelligent.

Locus of control
- sense of control over successes, failures and events in people's lives.
- Those with strong LOC believe they can influence events in their lives.
- External LOC believe outside factors (luck/fate) influence what happens in lives.
Williams and Warchal (1981)
- 30 university students given conformity tasks based on Asch.
- Assesses for LOC.
Result: those conformed were less assertive but didn't score differently on LOC scale.

Developing independent behaviour
Nemeth and Chiles (1988)
Aim: To see if p's influenced to be independent using similar method to Moscovici.
Procedure: 48 male volunteers.
- First part: groups of 5 (one C) judge slide colours using consistent and unconsistent C's.
- Second part: Colour perception task using red slides. (4/5 confederates called them orange.)
Results: Those who exposed to minority in first part more likely to be independent in second.

Obedience to authority

"OBEDIENCE IS THE RESULT OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE WHEN SOMEONE ACTS IN RESPONSE TO A DIRECT ORDER FROM AN AUTHORITY FIGURE"

Milgram (1963)
Aim: find if Americans obey to unjust order from authority figure to inflict pain.
Procedure: 48 male volunteers.
- P's = teacher
- C's = learner
- Learner receive shocks by teacher when fail on work pair task. (fake)
Result: All p's went to 300V
65% went to end (450V)
Conclusion: most people obey when against conscience.
When people occupy subordinate position in a dominance hierachy they lose feelings of empathy and morality.
+/-: p's found it impossible to withdraw.
- Sent questionnaire to p's and 84% were glad to have taken part. He visited them a year later and found no psycho harm.
Orne and Holland (1968)
- Lacked ecological validity. P'S didn't believe shocks were real and they should have questioned why experimenter didn't give shocks.
Aronson+Carlsmith (1988)
- Distinguished two types of realism.

• experimental (internal validity): p's fooled into believing exp was real.
• Mundane realism (external validity): real life set up exp.

Factors affecting obediance

1. Setting of experiment:
   - Milgram setting prestigious yale uni. To test this he moved his exp to a seedy office. Obedience dropped. 48% continued to 450V.
2. Reducing power of experimenter
   - Milgram told exp to give orders over phone, 26% teachers went to 450V.
   - Reduced exp power by working in pairs. 96% resisted orders and 10% went to 450v.
3. Increasing awareness of plight of victim
   - Obedience easier if victim remote. Milgram put teacher and learner in same room. Obedience dropped. When teacher had to physically put hand of learner on plate 30% went to 450v.

Obedience in the field

- people unaware taking part reducing D C's.

Hofling (1966)
- Nurse receive orders via phone from unknows doctor to administer twice dose of a drug to a patient. This broke 3 rules.
Result: 21/22 obeyed.
- When interviewed, nurses said they had been asked to do this before and doctors became annoyed at refusal.
Conclusion: Results highlight pressure to obey.
- High levels of obedience can be obtained in a real life setting.

The power of uniform

Bushman (1988)

- Female confederate dressed in uniform or smart.
- C ordered passer by for change for a parking meter.
Result: 70% complied to uniform
58% complied to smart.

Jackson (1990)

Aim: effects of strength and immediacy on obedience to a simple request at zoo.
Procedure: 153 adults, 55 kids.
- Approached by experimenter in zoo keeper uniform or normal visitor.
- Asked not to lean on rail. Behaviour observed.

Result: High strength (uniform) produced more compliance than low (normal).
Conclusion: Uniform indicates authority.

The obedience alibi- David Mandel (1998)

- Research provides alibi for those charged with war crimes as it implies an ordinary person can commit terrible acts under social pressure.
- Adolf Eichmann= crimes against humanity in Nazi Germany. He insisted throughout trials he was just obeying orders.

Why do people obey?

Situational factors

• Legitimate authority:
  - Amount of social power held by person. We obey people with L.A. because we trust them or they have power to punish us.
  - In Milgram's study we could assume the setting influenced trust they felt in experimenter.
• The authority figure takes responsibility: In Milgram's study p's continued when told they weren't responsible.
  Milgram explained importance of responsibility through 'agency theory': In social situation people operate...
  - when they act as autonomous individuals they are aware of consequences and choose voluntarily to behave in particular ways.
  - An agentic state. They don't feel personally responsible.
  - Change from autonomous to agentic is known as the agentic shift.
• Graduated commitment:Milgram's study p's were gradually committed by 15V-450V.
  P's wouldn't have obeyed if asked to start at 300V.
  Milgram established a basis for obedience which made it difficult for p's to disobey.
  -' the foot in the door technique'.

Personality factors into obedience

The authoritarian personality.

Adorno
Aim: Test if people with an authoritarian personality are obedient.
Procedure: studied 2000 american students from white middle class b.grounds.
Interviewed them about political views and early childhood experiences.
Used projective tests to assess if they were racially prejudiced.
Result: Found p's who were brough up by strict parents grew up to be obedient.
Harsh punishment led to child feeling hostile towards parents. These feelings repressed and displaced onto others, often ratial group.
- He developed the 'f' scale to measure the authoritarian personality. e.g.

• Conventionalism: obedience and respect for authority.
• Authoritarian aggression: Sex crimes e.g. rape deserve more than prison.
• Power and toughness: People divided into two classes; the strong and the weak.

Explanation of independent behaviour

Non conformity
- person acts in opposition to group norm.

The role of situational factors in disobedience and non conformity
Gamson (1982)
Aim: to see if p's would rebel against unjust authority when encouraged. 
Procedure: Advert in papers in USA, paid to take part in 'discussion on standards of behaviour in community.'
- Put in groups of 9.
- P's met a consultant who said they were taking legal action against a petrol station manager due to a offensive lifestyle.
- the manager argued he was sacked for speaking publicly of high petrol prices.
- Consultant wanted them to argue in favour.
- It was filmed and shown in court.
Result: 32/33 groups rebelled in some way.
- 25/33 groups refused to sign consent form.
Conclusion: rebellion in this case involved challenging social norms in the situations; obedience and commitment.
+/-: Why did people disobey...

Smith and Mackie (2000)

• Importance of group:
   - p's established strong group identitiy which they agreed demands of authority was unreasonable.
• Reactance:
  - p's rebelled against attempts to control behaviour.
• Systematic processing:
  - p's had sufficient time to think about their actions.

Why people conform

Dual dependency model- Deutsch and Gerard (1955)

• Normative social influence:
  Need to be accepted and belong to a group.
  Group belonging is rewarding and group has power to punish/exclude those who don't fit in.
  Privately disagree with group (compliance)
• Informational social influence:
  Different needs drive this type of social influence.
  When one is unsure they conform.
  Drive for conformity is need to be right.
  +/-:
  - Doesn't acknowledge importance of belonging to a group.
  -P's in an experiment cannot fear group exclusion so it implies factors other than dependency of group may be important.
  - Sees choice to conform as a rational process in which the person weighs up information given and need for group approval.

Social identity explanations- Hogg (2003)

• Referent informational influence
  - which considers importance of relationships and emotional ties with other group members to help understand why we conform with them.

Tajfel (1971)
Aim: to investigate importance of group belonging.
procedure: Teenage boys in Bristol allocated to one of two groups on basis of preference for an artist.
Played game where they allocate points to exchange for money to both groups. 

Result: Boys consistently allocated points to own group even with more points allocated by giving both groups equal amounts.
Conclusion: We favour 'in' group and discriminate 'out' group.

• We self categorize ourself to feel part of a group.
• Group norms regulate behaviour which is internalized.
• Conforming to gain approval and fears rejection.

EXPLAINING MINORITY INFLUENCE

Moscovi: Showed minorities exert influence when they are consistent.
Clark argued minority can exert influence by
- Providing persuasive arguments
- Showing defecting behaviour.

2 Explanations of minority influence

Lantane and Wolfe (1981) social impact theory

- Minority and majority influence involve people that they divide into sources and targets.
- 3 factors interact of the force operating the social field.

1. Strength, importance, power of person providing influence.
2. Immediacy, psychological, physical or social distance of person providing influence.
3. Number of people providing influence.

- As influence increases it gathers influence.

Tanford and Penrod (1986) social influence model

- Minority influence increases as size of minority increases and each additional member or defector to minority adds less impact.
The Social Influence Model (SIM) predicts that as a faction increases in size, its impact increases and vice versa.

What is conformity

"CHANGING ONES BELIEFS OR BEHAVIOUR DUE OT REAL OR IMAGINED GROUP PRESSURE"
Sherif (1936) light autokinetic effect
Aim: Find if individuals alter opinions when reflecting as a group about measurement of a stimulus using the autokinetik effect.
Procedure: Focus on spot of light and estimate how far it moved.
This was ambiguous as there was no correct answer.
Second condition: Repeat task in groups of 3.
result: Individuals changed views so they were similar.
Those with high estimates lowered them, vise versa.
In third trial, group norm emerged. 

Types of conformity

1. Compliance:
   - Superficial
   - Conform publicly but privately think own view.
2. Identification:
   - Deeper type.
   - Change views publicly and privately to fit in but when identification takes place the belief/behaviour may be temporary,
3. Internalization:
   - Conversion, deepest.
   - Views taken becomes part of persons cognitive system and can retain for life.

Asch (1951): majority influence COMPLIANCE.

Aim: To assess if a minority would change their minds to conform to an obviously wrong majority.

Procedure: Experimental paradigm method to study responses.
- 123 male students groups on 7-9.
- 'Visual perception' task of lines on a card.

- 18 trials, confederates gave wrong answer. (only on p)
Result: 37% conformed overall.
5% conformed every trial
25% remained independant and gave correct answer.
P's doubted their eyes.


Moscovici (1969) Minority influence :INTERNALIZATION
Aim: To see if consistent minority of p's influence majority on colour perception task.
Participants: 172 p's.
- 6 p's at a time estimated 36 slides (all blue, diff shades)
- 2/6 confederates.
2 conditions
- CONSISTENT: 2 confederates called slides green all.
- INCONSISTENT: 2 c's green 24 times, blue 12 times.
Results: P's in consistent yielded and called shades green 8.4% trials.
- 32% in consistent at least once.
- Ibconsistent only 1.3%.
Conclusion: Important minority behave consistently.
- Individual members of minority maintain viewpoint with each other.


Clark (1994) MINORITY INFLUENCE
 270 role play jurors.
- 12 angry men
- Guilt or not?
- Summary of murder and key pieces of evidence.
Result: Persuasive of arguments and views of jury's was manipulated by one person.
Conclusion: combo of convincing arguments and shift of majority members resulting in minority exerting greatest influence.


Zimbardo (1973) IDENTIFICATION.
Aim: How people conform to roles by observing how people adopt to guard or prisoner simulating prison life.
The brutality of prison guard in USA due to environment or sadistic personality.
Procedure: Male volunteers 2 weeks. Randomly allocated P or G.
- Arrested 9 prisoners at homes without warning. Blindfolded, stripped disinfected, given numbers not names.
- 3 guards.
Result: Guards devised on roles. Harrassed prisoners. and conformed to role thatit had to be stopped after 6 days.
Prisoners rebelled after 2 days.
- Some p's became depressed and anxious and one had to be released after one day.
Two more on 4th day.
Conclusion: Prison environment important factor = brutal guards.
People readily conform to social roles if stereotyped.
Roles played shape attitudes and behaviours.


Factors affecting conformity

• Size of majority
  - Asch's method allowed him to manipulate factors to see which influenced conformity rates.
  - In one variation he manipulated size of group of confederates.
  - Found conformity low when one confederate changed view.
  - When group had 3 confederates, conformity was 33%.
• Importance of time
  - Asch in USA. Conformity high.
• Importance of place and culture
  Smith and Bond (1993)
  - meta analysis Aschs's method study conformity.
  - Conformity high in Fiji.
  - Low in Belgium.
  - Differences in individualistic and collectivist cultures.
  Individualistic: (USA+UK) Independence and individuality.
  Collectivist: Importance  to social group.
• Importance of modern technologies.
  People interact without seeing each other e.g. chatrooms.
  Crutchfield
  - People unable to see each other less prone to conformity.

Psychological and physiological methods of stress management

1. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
- Alters irrational thoughts and cognitive biases that are assumed to be the cause of the problem.

Meichenbaums stress inoculation training (SIT)

1. Conceptualisation: Identify sources of stress in live. Recall stressful encounters. Keep diary recording stressful experiences. 
2. Skills training rehearsal: Acquires specific skills to address situations.
   - People with social anxiety have poor non verbal communications e.g. eye contact. They will be shown how to improve this.
   - Relaxation to keep bodily arousal under control.
3. Application in the real world: .. Therapist will monitor progress/behaviour.

+/-:
First stages involve identifying sources of stress assessing how well you dealt with them. It is a CBT approach focusing on these elements;

• Stress exists when there is a gap between perceived demands and resources to cope.
  -The cognitive element of SIT is aimed at producing a realistic appraisal of demands while training relevant skills aimed at increasing resources to cope with demands 'problem faced coping'.
• Training in relaxation techniques gives clients control over any stressful situation. Can be emotion focused and reduces emotionally arousing effects of stress.

-Time, commitment, money ETC

Kobasa's Hardiness training (control commitment, challenge)

1. Focusing: Client focuses on physiological symptoms associated with stressful situations to help identify source of stress. +helps require new skills strategies for coping. 
2. Reconstructing stressful situations: Cognitive strategy, encourages clients towards realistic appraisal of life stress and how coped with.
3. Self improvement: Improve clients sense of self efficiency. Take on manageable sources of stress

+/-: targets appraisal sources of stress and through training the resources available for dealing with them.
- reduces gap between demand and coping resources.
- Client self efficient so can deal with future.
- time, commitment, money.

2. Physiological of methods of stress management

Drugs

• Benzodiazepines (librium, valium):
  - Anti anxiety drugs
  -Act in brain, increases action of neurotransmitter GABA (Which Reduces activity of other neurotransmitters in brain) this decreases adrenaline and seratonin to relax you.
  +/-: Bad side effects e.g. tiredness, impaired motor coordination.
  Can lead to physical dependence.
  Withdrawal symptoms e.g. raised heart rate, sleeping problems.
  Doesn't target source.
  Consent.
• Beta blockers:
  - Act on cardiovascular system of body rather than brain. (Heart)
  - Reduces activation of autonomic nervous system to reduce heart rate.
  +/-: No side effects
  Targets physiological stress response and lowers stress related arousal.
  Doesn't target source of stress ... targets physical symptoms.
  Not good for long term.

Alternative methods of stress management

Biofeedback

- Combines physiological and psychological techniques.
- One wired to machine to provide feedback e.g. heart rate.
- Then helped to develop techniques to reduce symptoms e.g. meditation.
+/-: Effective to control heart rate.

Masters (1987) 
-involves relaxation which is already a technique so may have no implication.

Progressive muscle relaxation meditation

- Muscle relaxation common component for CBT,.
Jacobson (1938)

- Muscles tense and relaxed in systematic fashion.
- When more familiar, the person can go into a state of relaxation state without going through the whole process.
+/-: Gives control
Meditation has similarities with muscle relaxation. Immediate effect of reducing bodily arousal.
Meditation works against bodily arousal associated with stress.

Physical exercise

- Chronic stress = energy reserves (glucose) and fatty acids build up in bloodstream contributing to atherosclerosis.
+/-: Not clear it reduces physiological reactivity to stressors.
- P.E reduces resting levels of heart rate and blood pressure so while stress increases they start from a lower level and shouldn't be harmful.

Throne (2000)- FIREFIGHTERS

- Found regular exercise reduces levels of stress in fire fighters.
- helps lift mood indirectly copes with stress.
- Increases self efficiency.
- Enkephalins are released during exercise and act on brain to improve mood.

Social support

• Emotional support: Social network provide reassurance. 
• Practical or instrumental support: e.g. lending money.
• Informational support: Support group, share experience and give advice. 
• General network support: Self belonging and social identity improves self esteem.

Uchino, Cacioppio and Kiecolt-Glaser (1992)

-Reviewed studies on social support on body's physiological processes.
Result: Across 28 studies. degrees of social support showed consistent relationships with reduced blood pressure.
Across 19, there was a significant association between level of social support and immune function. 

Personality factors

Type A behaviour (TAB)

• Hostile, Impatient, competitive, time pressured.

Type B behvaiour

• Patient, relaxed, easy going

Rosenham (1976)

Aim: Find out if a type A person is more likely to develop CHD as type B.

Procedure: 3454 middle ages men USA. Categorized A or B after an interview.
Followed up 8 years later
Results: 257 had heart attacks, 69% type A.
Conclusion: High TAB individuals vulnerable to heart attacks.
+/-: concept of TAB based on western concept.

Other personality types

Eysenck (1988)

- 2 TYPES OF PERSONALITY

1. Personality vulnerable to cancer, associated with expressing emotions.
2. Peronality type vulnerable to CHD. Similar to TAB. High levles of anger and hostility.

+/-: No consistent evidence linking these personality types to cancer or CHD.

Derollet (2000)

- Type D personality. 'Distressed' expeience high levels of negative emotions and social inhibition.

Workplace stress

Workplace stress
Causes:
* Home/work interface: Balance demands of home and work. ‘work life balance’. Having time for both home and work responsibilities= better psychological adjustment.
* Control: high levels of control over workload= low levels of stress. Low levels of control experienced by workers lower down in the hierarchy.
* Environment: heating, lighting and physical arrangement. Could affect psychological wellbeing.
* Workload



Marmot (1997)
Aim: to investigate the negative correlation between job control and stress related illness in male and female civil servants.
Procedure: 10308 civil servants aged 35-55. 67% men, 33%women. Longitudinal study over 3 years. - Job control measured by self report surveys and independent assessment (observation) of work environment by personnel managers.
Correlation analysis carried out to test association between job control and stress related illness.
Results: p's with low job control were more likely to die of a heart attack and suffer from other stress related illnesses e.g. cancer.
Variables are negatively correlated. As control decreases, immunity decreases.
+/-: Based on self report questionnaires.
Risk of psychological harm.

Stress in everyday life

Measuring stress

• Self report questionnaires on frequency of life stress.
• Self report questionnaires on perceived stress.
• Semi structures interviews in which the P talks through their life stress.

Holmes and Rahe (1967) -social readjustment rating scale (SRRS)

Aim: to construct instrument to measure stress defined as amount of change an individual has had to deal with during a particular amount of time.

Procedure: To rate impact of life events they asked 394 p's to compared 43 life events.
Result: LCU scores for year were associated with likelihood of physical illness within the following year. e.g. a person with LCU score of 200-300 had 50% chance of developing illness
Conclusion: High stress = high chance of illness.
+/-: bias, carried out in USA.
Retrospective.
Life changes are unexpected.
Any change is stressful, even positive.
Some life events are not every day occurances.

Rahe (1970) - NAVY PERSONELL


Aim: Investigate link between LCU's and illness in a sample of healthy p's.
Procedure: 2500 us navy personnell filled in SRRS for previous 6 mths.
Followed up over 7 mths tour of duty and all stress related illness recorded and rated for number and severity producing an overall illness score.
Results:  found positive correlation between LCU scores and illness scores.
Conclusion: there is a relationship between life events and development of stress related illness as correlation was low however other factors may have been involved.
+/-: doesn't provide causality, only association
retrospective questionnaires.

• LES Sarason

- Allows people to rate 57 life events in terms of impact of both positive and negative allowing for individual differences.
This produces a positive, negative and total change.

• Hassles and uplifts scale- Lazarus

- 117 items covering aspects of daily life.
- Life contained uplifts that counteracted negative events.
- Scores on the hassles scale correlate with stress related problems like depression and anxiety.
- Client focuses on dealing with hassles and enhancing uplifts.

Stress related illness and the immune system

Cohen (1993)


Aim:  to investigate if life stress and negative emotions reduce immunity. He investigated role of general life stress on vulnerability to common cold.
Procedure: 394 p's completed questionnaire on number of stressful life events they had in past year.
Also rated degree of stress and their levels of negative emotions e.g. depression.
The scores were rated in 'stress index'.
P's were then exposed to the common cold.
Results: 82% infected after 7 days.
Conclusion: Chance of developing cold correlated with stress index scores.
+/-:
- This was an indirect study and there were no measures of immune function.
Evans and Eddington (1991) found the reliability of developing a cold was correlated with stress in the preceding days.
-It measures health outcomes showing a relationship between life stress and illness.
Unethical
Low population validity
Demand characteristics
No manipulation of IV and so cause and effect can't be confirmed.
This study doesn;t tell us which element of stress index is important.
Require medical supervision.
P's should be in good health prior. 

Kiecolt-Glazer (1984)


Aim: interested in naturalistic life stressors and their impact on measures of immune function. 
Procedure: 75 medical students preparing for exams.
As an index of immune function, they measures natural killer (NK) cell activity (part of immunity) via blood samples.
Samples taken one month before exams (low stress) and during the period (high stress).
P's completed questionnaire on experience of negative life events and social isolation.
Results: NK activity reduced in high stress samples compared to low stress samples.
Greatest reductions were in students with higher levels of social isolation.
+/-: significant reductions seen in this study are too small to increase chance of stress relayed illness.
No manipulation of IV so cause and effect relationship cannot be confirmed.
Would require medical supervision.

Body's response to stress

The transactional model- Cox and Mackay


-model of stress defining stress as an imbalance between perceived demands of an individual and their perceives coping resources.
- TM sees stress as depending on the persons perception of themselves and the world around them.
-Key process divided into primary appraisal and secondary appraisal.

• Primary appraisal- person appraises/assesses the situation to identify potential threats or demands
• Secondary appraisal- Persona appraises their ability to cope with threatening situation.

-When an imbalance exists between perceives demands and perceives coping resources then a state pf stress exits biologically and psychologically.

The body's response

- Appraises stressful situation, evaluating using previous experiences.
- Signals sent to Hypothalamus to activate

• HPA- Hypothalamic pituitary axis
• SAM- Sympathetic adrenal medullary pathway

-Pituitary gland sits beneath hypothalamus. This releases the hormone ACTH (Adrenocorticotrophic hormone) into bloodstream which travels to the adrenal cortex (part of the adrenal gland), these adrenal glands are located near the kidneys.
- When ACTH reaches adrenal cortex corticosteroids released which has physiological effects on the body.
- The SNS controls the internal organs such as the heart. Nerve pathways of the SNS start in brain and travel into spinal cord and nerves to the various parts of the body organs. One of these is the adrenal medulla which along with adrenal cortex makes up the adrenal gland. SNS stimulates gland to produce adrenaline and noradrenaline into blood stream.
- ANS unconsciously controls our internal organs automatically. It instincts the hypothalamus to release ACTH from pituitary gland.
- The hypothalamus commands the ANS to activate the SNS resulting in an increase release of adrenaline+noradrenaline.
***- Prolonged activation in the case of prolonged stress means there is constant release of fatty acids which builds up and narrows the arteries. 'Furring up the arteries' is called 'atherosclerosis'
-Raised corticosteroids over a long time suppress the bodies immune system.

Selye's general adaptation syndrome GAS
Found when rats put under stress of an injection they developed stomach ulcers.


Stage 1: ALARM
-stressor is perceived. HPA axis and SAM pathway activated. Hormones surge and heart and blood pressure increase and energy reserves are mobilised.
Stage 2: RESISTANCE
- If stressor persists the body's response systems maintain their activation, hormones and arousal remain high.
Stage 3: EXHAUSTION
- Chronic stress exhausts body's immunity and the ability to maintain high levels of stress hormones. Illness likely to develop.
+/-: Influential in developing of stress and related illness.
Psychology as a science. High reliability and validity.
He took a response based approach to stress which ignores individual differences and cognitive elements of perception and appraisal.
A lot of his work based on rats.
Shows stress related isn't caused by exhaustion, it's caused by if it's chronic. 

Disruption of attachment

The short and long term effects of separation

SHORT TERM

Robertson and Bowlby PDD model (1952)- PROTEST, DESPAIR, DETACHMENT.

1. Protest: When parent leaves, child try to escape from others.
2. Despair: Angry protest will subside but will refuse others comfort.
3. Detachment: Child may begin to engage with others. Reject caregiver and show anger on return. 

Robertson (1969)
- Found a child who was put into a residential care for 9 days while his mother was in hospital went from being securely attached to insecure ambivalent. After many months he still remained angry towards his mother. 
+/-: high validity as naturalistic experiment. Although case study.
Culture bound.
DATED.

LONG TERM

Bowlby's maternal deprivation hypothesis

- Continual disruption of attachment between infant and caregiver= cognitive, social and emotional difficulties.e.g. aggression, depression and affectionless psychopathy. 

Bowlby (1944)- 44 Thieves.

Aim: Investigate effects of maternal deprivation on 'delinguents' to see if they suffered deprivation.

Procedure: Interviewed 44 adolescent thieves. Had 'control' group of 44 p's who were in clinic due to emotional issues who hadn't commited crimes. Also interviewed parents about any separation during the 'critical period'.
Results: Over half thieves were separated from mother for more than 6 months in first 5 years. In control group, only 2 had this separation. 32% of thieves showed 'affectionless psychopathy'.
Conclusion: Anti social behaviour in first group caused by maternal deprivation.
+/-:
Retrospective
Correlational, cause and effect.

Effects of privation "lack of attachment"
Kaluchova- twin boys
- Locked in celler alone, beaten and scared of adults.
- Were given rehab and developed attachments.
- Went to mainstream school.
Conclusion: Shows children can recover from situations if given sufficient aftercare.


Curtis (1977) Genie
- Locked in room by father until she was 13.5 yrs.
- When found she couldn't stand or speak.
- She showed a disinterest to other people.
Conclusion: Lack of recovery could be due to early emotional privation or the late age of being discovered which is well past Bowlby's sensitive age for attachment.


Effects of institutionalization


Tizard and Hodges (1989)
Aim: Examine effects of institutional upbringing on later attachments.
Procedure: 
-Naturalistic experiment (IV changed naturally)+longitudinal.
- 65 children in care home assessed over 16 years.
- P's were 16 and in care since 4 yrs.
- Unable to form attachments.
- At 2 yrs they had 24 carers each.
- At 4 yrs;

• 25 returned to biological parents
• 33 adopted
• 7 remained in care with occasional fostering

- Parents/guardians were interviewed.
- Self report questionnaires on 'social diffulties'.
- Questionnaires to teachers about relationships with peers and teachers.

Result: At 16, majority of adoptive mothers felt a deep attachment to child.
- Half restored kids were deeply attached.
- Ex-institutional kids had problems with siblings.
- Ex institutional kids had poorer relationships with peers than comparison group. They weren't often liked by others and bullied more.

Conclusion: Children deprived of close relationships in first years of life can form attachments later depending on adult concerned and how attachment is nurtures.
- Adopted children had closer relationships as parents were often financially better off, had fewer children and were more motivated to develop a relationship with them.
Evaluation: Natural experiment= HEV. However allows little control over confounding variables e.g. some being fostered occasionally. This could have been due to children having problems so are unwanted.
P attrition, only 51 of 65 were questioned at age of 8. 

Effects of institutionalisation

• Reactive detachment
  - Child unable to trust or love others. Isolated and selfisj. Unable to understand the needs of others. Can become without a conscience.
• Disinhibited attachment
  - Children select attachment figures indiscriminately and behave in overly familiar fashion with strangers. Attention seeking.
• Poor parenting
• Mental disorders
• Physical underdevelopment

Rutter (2007) (evidence for disinhibited attachment)Aim: To see if good care could compensate for privation previously.
Procedure:
- on going longitudinal study since 1998.
- 118 Romanian orphans adopted into British families.
- Natural experiment, age of adoption being the IV.- Studied 3 groups

1. Adopted before 6 months old
2. Adopted between 6 mths-2 yrs.
3. Adopted after 2 years.

Result:
- At 6 yrs the kids made good recoveries although group 3 had a higher level of disinhibited attachment.
- Rutter returned in 2007 to the children who were 11 yrs now, found they made recoveries but half of those diagnose with it at 6 still had it at 11.
Conclusion:
Children exposed to privation more likely to make a fuller recovery if adopted into a caring environment at early age.

Can children recover from institutionalization and privation: Deepends on 4 factors

1. Quality of care at institution
   Dontas
   - Looked at 15 babies 7-9 months, each given a member of staff and formed attachment with them. After 2 weeks he found babies adjusted well and formed secure attachments. Shows importance for institutionalized kids to form attachments between 7 and 8 months.
2. Age of child when recovered from privation industrialisation
   - Those removed from privation younger made better developmental progree both cognitively and emotionally.
3. Quality of care after privation/Institutionalization
   - Better if in loving and supportive environment.
4. Experiences later in life
   Quinton and Rutter
   - Found positive experiences in early adulthood led to different developmental pathways showed it isn't just early experiences that influence later development. Early affects can be overcome but good experiences later in life.

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